tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-65754900340190353092024-02-08T11:20:32.206-08:00IBM TECHNOLOGYSIBM TECHNOLOGYSUnknownnoreply@blogger.comBlogger21125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6575490034019035309.post-80312156641721495522011-08-24T02:37:00.001-07:002011-08-24T02:37:59.852-07:00IBM Operating system software<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); "><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The smaller S/360 models used Basic Operating System/360 (BOS/360), Tape Operating System (TOS/360), or Disk Operating System/360 (DOS/360, which evolved into DOS/VS, DOS/VSE, VSE/AF, VSE/SP, VSE/ESA, and then <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VSE" title="VSE" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">z/VSE</a>).</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The larger S/360 models used <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OS/360_and_successors" title="OS/360 and successors" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Operating System/360</a> (OS/360): Primary Control Program (PCP), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MFT_(operating_system)" title="MFT (operating system)" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Multiprogramming with a Fixed number of Tasks</a> (MFT), which evolved into <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OS/VS1" title="OS/VS1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">OS/VS1</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiprogramming_with_a_Variable_number_of_Tasks" title="Multiprogramming with a Variable number of Tasks" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Multiprogramming with a Variable number of Tasks</a> (MVT), which evolved into <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MVS" title="MVS" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">MVS</a>. MVT took a long time to develop into a usable system, and the less ambitious MFT was widely used. PCP was used on intermediate machines; the final releases of OS/360 included only MFT and MVT.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">When it announced the S/360-67 in August 1965, IBM also announced <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TSS/360" title="TSS/360" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">TSS/360</a> (Time-Sharing System) for delivery at the same time as the 67. TSS/360, a response to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multics" title="Multics" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Multics</a>, was an ambitious project that included many advanced features. It never worked properly, was delayed, canceled, reinstated, and finally canceled again in 1971. It was replaced by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CP-67" title="CP-67" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">CP-67</a>, MTS (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michigan_Terminal_System" title="Michigan Terminal System" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Michigan Terminal System</a>), TSO (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_Sharing_Option" title="Time Sharing Option" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Time Sharing Option</a> for OS/360), or one of several other <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-sharing" title="Time-sharing" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">time-sharing</a>systems.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">CP-67, the original <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_machine" title="Virtual machine" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">virtual machine</a> system, was also known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CP/CMS" title="CP/CMS" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">CP/CMS</a>. CP/67 was developed outside the IBM mainstream at IBM's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_Scientific_Center" title="Cambridge Scientific Center" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Cambridge Scientific Center</a>, in cooperation with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT" title="MIT" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">MIT</a> researchers. CP/CMS eventually won wide acceptance, and led to the development of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VM/370" title="VM/370" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">VM/370</a> (aka <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VM/CMS" title="VM/CMS" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">VM/CMS</a>) and today's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z/VM" title="Z/VM" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">z/VM</a>.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The S/360 Model 20 offered a simplified and rarely used tape-based system called TPS (Tape Processing System), and also DPS (Disk Processing System) that provided support for the 2311 disk drive. TPS could run on a machine with 8K of memory, and DPS required 12 K, which was pretty hefty for a Model 20. Many customers ran quite happily with 4 K and CPS (Card Processing System).</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">With TPS and DOS, the card reader was used (a) to define the stack of jobs to be run (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_Control_Language" title="Job Control Language" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Job Control Language</a>), and (b) to feed in transaction data, like customer payments. But the operating system was held on tape or disk, and results (master files!) could also be stored on the tapes or hard drives. Stacked job processing became an exciting possibility for the small but adventurous computer user.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">A little known and little used suite of 80 column punched-card utility programs known as Basic Programming Support (BPS) (jocularly: Barely Programming Support) was available for the S/360-30. It was a precursor of TOS on the Model 30.</p></span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6575490034019035309.post-15691596499291707042011-08-24T02:36:00.001-07:002011-08-24T02:36:37.038-07:00IBM Data storage<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); "><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">In all tape formats, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tape_drive" title="Tape drive" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">tape drive</a> (or "transport" or "deck") uses motors to wind the tape from one reel to another, passing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tape_head" title="Tape head" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">tape heads</a> to read, write or erase as it moves.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Magnetic tape was first used to record computer data in 1951 on the Eckert-Mauchly <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNIVAC_I" title="UNIVAC I" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">UNIVAC I</a>. The recording medium was a thin strip of one half inch (12.65 mm) wide metal, consisting of nickel-plated bronze (called Vicalloy). Recording density was 128 characters per inch (198 micrometre/character) on eight tracks.</p><div class="thumb tleft" style="margin-bottom: 1.3em; width: auto; background-color: transparent; float: left; clear: left; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-right: 1.4em; margin-left: 0px; "><div class="thumbinner" style="min-width: 100px; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; background-color: rgb(249, 249, 249); font-size: 12px; text-align: center; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; width: 222px; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tapesticker.jpg" class="image" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Tapesticker.jpg/220px-Tapesticker.jpg" width="220" height="124" class="thumbimage" style="border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); " /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align: left; border-top-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-bottom-style: none; border-left-style: none; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; line-height: 1.4em; padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; font-size: 11px; "><div class="magnify" style="float: right; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tapesticker.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; display: block; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><img src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" style="border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; display: block; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; " /></a></div>Small open reel of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9_track_tape" title="9 track tape" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">9 track tape</a></div></div></div><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_7_track" title="IBM 7 track" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Early IBM tape drives</a> were floor-standing drives that used vacuum columns to physically buffer long U-shaped loops of tape. The two tape reels visibly fed tape through the columns, intermittently spinning the reels in rapid, unsynchronized bursts, resulting in visually striking action. Stock shots of such vacuum-column tape drives in motion were widely used to represent "the computer" in movies and television.</p><div class="thumb tright" style="margin-bottom: 1.3em; width: auto; background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-left: 1.4em; "><div class="thumbinner" style="min-width: 100px; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; background-color: rgb(249, 249, 249); font-size: 12px; text-align: center; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; width: 222px; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quarter-Inch_Cartridges.jpg" class="image" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Quarter-Inch_Cartridges.jpg/220px-Quarter-Inch_Cartridges.jpg" width="220" height="150" class="thumbimage" style="border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); " /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align: left; border-top-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-bottom-style: none; border-left-style: none; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; line-height: 1.4em; padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; font-size: 11px; "><div class="magnify" style="float: right; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quarter-Inch_Cartridges.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; display: block; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><img src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" style="border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; display: block; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; " /></a></div><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarter_inch_cartridge" title="Quarter inch cartridge" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Quarter inch cartridges</a>, a data format commonly used in the 1980s and 1990s.</div></div></div><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Most modern magnetic tape systems use reels that are much smaller than the 10.5 inch open reels and are fixed inside a cartridge to protect the tape and facilitate handling. Many late 1970s and early 1980s home computers used <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_Cassette" title="Compact Cassette" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Compact Cassettes</a> encoded with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansas_City_standard" title="Kansas City standard" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Kansas City standard</a>. Modern cartridge formats include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_Tape-Open" title="Linear Tape-Open" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">LTO</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Linear_Tape" title="Digital Linear Tape" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">DLT</a>, and<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Data_Storage" title="Digital Data Storage" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">DAT/DDC</a>.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Tape remains a viable alternative to disk in some situations due to its lower cost per bit. This is a large advantage when dealing with large amounts of data. Though the areal density of tape is lower than for disk drives, the available surface area on a tape is far greater. The highest capacity tape media are generally on the same order as the largest available disk drives (about 5 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terabyte" title="Terabyte" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">TB</a> in 2011). Tape has historically offered enough advantage in cost over disk storage to make it a viable product, particularly for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backup" title="Backup" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">backup</a>, where media removability is necessary.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Tape has the benefit of a comparatively long duration during which the media can be guaranteed to retain the data stored on the media. Fifteen (15) to thirty (30) years of archival data storage is cited by manufacturers of modern data tape such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_Tape-Open" title="Linear Tape-Open" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Linear Tape-Open</a> media.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">In 2002, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imation" title="Imation" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Imation</a> received a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US$" title="US$" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">US$</a>11.9 million grant from the U.S. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology" title="National Institute of Standards and Technology" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">National Institute of Standards and Technology</a> for research into increasing the data capacity of magnetic tape.</p></span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6575490034019035309.post-5662133263825336042011-08-24T02:34:00.000-07:002011-08-24T02:35:52.034-07:00IBM Magnetic tape<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); "><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; "><b>Magnetic tape</b> is a medium for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_recording" title="Magnetic recording" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">magnetic recording</a>, made of a thin magnetizable coating on a long, narrow strip of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic" title="Plastic" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">plastic</a>. It was developed in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" title="Germany" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Germany</a>, based on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wire_recording" title="Wire recording" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">magnetic wire recording</a>. Devices that record and play back audio and video using magnetic tape are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tape_recorder" title="Tape recorder" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">tape recorders</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_tape_recorder" title="Video tape recorder" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">video tape recorders</a>. A device that stores computer data on magnetic tape is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tape_drive" title="Tape drive" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">tape drive</a> (tape unit, streamer).</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Magnetic tape revolutionized broadcast and recording. When all <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">radio</a> was live, it allowed programming to be prerecorded. At a time when <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramophone_record" title="Gramophone record" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">gramophone records</a>were recorded in one take, it allowed recordings in multiple parts, which mixed and edited with tolerable loss in quality. It is a key technology in early computer development, allowing unparalleled amounts of data to be mechanically created, stored for long periods, and to be rapidly accessed.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Today, other technologies can perform the functions of magnetic tape. In many cases these technologies are replacing tape. Despite this, innovation in the technology continues and tape is still widely used.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Over years, magnetic tape can suffer from deterioration called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sticky-shed_syndrome" title="Sticky-shed syndrome" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">sticky-shed syndrome</a>. Caused by absorption of moisture into the binder of the tape, it can render the tape unusable.</p></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); "><h2 style="color: black; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); width: auto; font-size: 19px; "><span class="mw-headline" id="Audio_recording">Audio recording</span></h2><div class="thumb tright" style="font-size: 19px; margin-bottom: 1.3em; width: auto; background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-left: 1.4em; "><div class="thumbinner" style="min-width: 100px; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; background-color: rgb(249, 249, 249); font-size: 12px; text-align: center; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; width: 222px; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kaseta_magnetofonowa_ubt.jpeg" class="image" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Kaseta_magnetofonowa_ubt.jpeg/220px-Kaseta_magnetofonowa_ubt.jpeg" width="220" height="170" class="thumbimage" style="border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); " /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align: left; border-top-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-bottom-style: none; border-left-style: none; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; line-height: 1.4em; padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; font-size: 11px; "><div class="magnify" style="float: right; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kaseta_magnetofonowa_ubt.jpeg" class="internal" title="Enlarge" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; display: block; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><img src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" style="border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; display: block; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; " /></a></div><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_Cassette" title="Compact Cassette" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Compact Cassette</a></div></div></div><p style="font-size: 19px; margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Magnetic tape was invented for recording sound by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_Pfleumer" title="Fritz Pfleumer" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Fritz Pfleumer</a> in 1928 in Germany, based on the invention of magnetic wire recording by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valdemar_Poulsen" title="Valdemar Poulsen" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Valdemar Poulsen</a> in 1898. Pfleumer's invention used an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron(III)_oxide" title="Iron(III) oxide" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">iron(III) oxide</a>(Fe<sub style="line-height: 1em; ">2</sub>O<sub style="line-height: 1em; ">3</sub>) powder coating on a long strip of paper. This invention was further developed by the German electronics company <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AEG" title="AEG" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">AEG</a>, which manufactured the recording machines and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BASF" title="BASF" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">BASF</a>, which manufactured the tape. In 1933, working for AEG, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eduard_Schuller&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eduard Schuller (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Eduard Schuller</a> developed the ring shaped tape head. Previous head designs were needle shaped and tended to shred the tape. An important discovery made in this period was the technique of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tape_bias" title="Tape bias" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">AC biasing</a> which improved the fidelity of the recorded audio signal by increasing the effective linearity of the recording medium.</p><p style="font-size: 19px; margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Due to the escalating political tensions, and the outbreak of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">World War II</a>, these developments were largely kept secret. Although the Allies knew from their monitoring of Nazi radio broadcasts that the Germans had some new form of recording technology, the nature was not discovered until the Allies acquired captured German recording equipment as they invaded Europe in the closing of the war. It was only after the war that Americans, particularly <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Mullin" title="Jack Mullin" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Jack Mullin</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Herbert_Orr" title="John Herbert Orr" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">John Herbert Orr</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_H._Ranger" title="Richard H. Ranger" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Richard H. Ranger</a> were able to bring this technology out of Germany and develop it into commercially viable formats.</p><p style="font-size: 19px; margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">A wide variety of recorders and formats have developed since, most significantly <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reel-to-reel" title="Reel-to-reel" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">reel-to-reel</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_Cassette" title="Compact Cassette" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Compact Cassette</a>.</p><h2 style="color: black; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); width: auto; font-size: 19px; "><span class="mw-headline" id="Video_recording">
<br />Video recording</span></h2><p style="font-size: 19px; margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The practice of recording and editing audio using magnetic tape rapidly established itself as an obvious improvement over previous methods. Many saw the potential of making the same improvements in recording television. Television ("video") signals are similar to audio signals. A major difference is that video signals use more <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)" title="Bandwidth (signal processing)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">bandwidth</a> than audio signals. Existing audio tape recorders could not practically capture a video signal. Many set to work on resolving this problem. Jack Mullin (working for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bing_Crosby" title="Bing Crosby" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Bing Crosby</a>) and the BBC both created crude working systems that involved moving the tape across a fixed tape head at very fast speeds. Neither system saw much use. It was the team at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampex" title="Ampex" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Ampex</a>, led by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Ginsburg" title="Charles Ginsburg" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Charles Ginsburg</a>, that made the breakthrough of using a spinning recording head and normal tape speeds to achieve a very high head-to-tape speed that could record and reproduce the high bandwidth signals of video. The Ampex system was called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_inch_Quadruplex_videotape" title="2 inch Quadruplex videotape" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Quadruplex</a> and used 2-inch-wide (51 mm) tape, mounted on reels like audio tape, which wrote the signal in what is now called transverse scan.</p><p style="font-size: 19px; margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Later improvements by other companies, particularly <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony" title="Sony" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Sony</a>, lead to the development of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helical_scan" title="Helical scan" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">helical scan</a> and the enclosure of the tape reels in an easy-to-handle <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartridge_(electronics)" title="Cartridge (electronics)" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">cartridge</a>. Nearly all modern videotape systems use helical scan and cartridges. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videocassette_recorder" title="Videocassette recorder" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Videocassette recorders</a> are very common in homes and television production facilities though many functions of the VCR are being replaced. Since the advent of digital video and computerized video processing, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_disc" title="Optical disc" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">optical disc</a> media and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_video_recorder" title="Digital video recorder" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">digital video recorders</a> can now perform the same role as videotape. These devices also offer improvements like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_access" title="Random access" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">random access</a> to any scene in the recording and "live" <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_shifting" title="Time shifting" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">time shifting</a> and are likely to replace videotape in many situations.</p><h2 style="color: black; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); width: auto; "><span class="Apple-style-span" >
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<br /></div><span class="mw-headline" id="Data_storage" style="font-size: 19px;"></span></h2></span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6575490034019035309.post-72729486165769644712011-08-24T02:31:00.000-07:002011-08-24T02:32:17.282-07:00IBM 1750, 2750 and 3750 Switching Systems<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); "><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">In 1969 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM" title="IBM" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM</a> started marketing in five European countries the IBM 2750 Switching System – worldwide, the first stored-program-controlled <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PABX" title="PABX" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">PABX</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_Branch_Exchange" title="Private Branch Exchange" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Private Automatic Branch Exchange</a>). Previously only<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromechanical" title="Electromechanical" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">electromechanical</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strowger_switch" title="Strowger switch" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Strowger</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossbar_switch" title="Crossbar switch" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Crossbar</a> PABXs were available.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The 2750 was sold in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" title="France" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">France</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" title="Germany" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Germany</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy" title="Italy" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Italy</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Belgium</a>. The other systems were sold in these countries and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">United Kingdom</a>. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Netherlands</a> installed some in IBM sites.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The family of IBM 1750, 2750 and 3750 Switching Systems was developed from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_1800" title="IBM 1800" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 1800</a> by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_La_Gaude&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM La Gaude (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM La Gaude</a> Research Laboratory near <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nice" title="Nice" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Nice</a>, France for European markets only. Each system included twin <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stored_Program_Control_exchange" title="Stored Program Control exchange" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">stored-program controllers</a> (each with some 600,000 lines of code, and nightly automatic switchover), twin disks, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_state_(electronics)" title="Solid state (electronics)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">solid-state</a> switching. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extension_(telephone)" title="Extension (telephone)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Extension</a>, trunk and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tie_line" title="Tie line" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">tie lines</a> were connected by discrete <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">transistors</a> on plug-in panels.</p><table class="wikitable" style="font-size: 13px; margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 0px; background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: rgb(249, 249, 249); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-collapse: collapse; color: black; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><tbody><tr><th style="border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: rgb(242, 242, 242); text-align: center; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">System</th><th style="border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: rgb(242, 242, 242); text-align: center; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Year first marketed</th><th style="border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: rgb(242, 242, 242); text-align: center; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Extensions</th><th style="border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: rgb(242, 242, 242); text-align: center; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Trunks + tie lines</th><th style="border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: rgb(242, 242, 242); text-align: center; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Operator desks</th></tr><tr><td style="border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; ">IBM 2750 Switching System</td><td style="border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; ">1968</td><td style="border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; ">100-500?</td><td style="border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; "></td><td style="border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; "></td></tr><tr><td style="border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; ">IBM 3750 Switching System</td><td style="border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; ">1970</td><td style="border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; ">250-2200?</td><td style="border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; ">300 Max?</td><td style="border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; "></td></tr><tr><td style="border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; ">IBM 1750 Switching System</td><td style="border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; ">1979</td><td style="border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; ">100 - 760</td><td style="border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; ">0 - 96</td><td style="border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; ">1 - 5</td></tr></tbody></table><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The systems all had both voice and data functions – the marketplace largely bought them for their then-new voice and management functions. Early-1960s computers had hardly any typewriter-like terminals and no screens – the IBM Switching Systems introduced the novelty of simple data capture from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touch_tone" title="Touch tone" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">touch-tone</a> telephones.</p></span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6575490034019035309.post-89008717718291553902011-08-24T02:21:00.000-07:002011-08-24T02:31:31.967-07:00IBM products<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); "><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The following is a list of products, some notable, some less so, from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Business_Machines" title="International Business Machines" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">International Business Machines (IBM)</a> Corporation and its predecessor corporations, beginning in the 1890s, and spanning<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punched_card" title="Punched card" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">punched card</a> equipment, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_clock" title="Time clock" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">time clocks</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter" title="Typewriter" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">typewriters</a>, via <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">mainframe computers</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minicomputer" title="Minicomputer" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">minicomputers</a>, to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">microprocessors</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">software</a>, and more.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">This list is <a href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/eclectic" class="extiw" title="wikt:eclectic" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(51, 102, 187); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">eclectic</a>; it includes, for example, the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AN/FSQ-7" title="AN/FSQ-7" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">AN/FSQ-7</a></i>, which was not a product in the sense of <i>offered for sale</i>, but was a product in the sense of <i>manufactured - produced by the labor of IBM</i>. Also missing are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RPQ" title="RPQ" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">RPQs</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_Equipment_Manufacturer" title="Original Equipment Manufacturer" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">OEM</a> products (semiconductors, for example), supplies (punched cards, for example). That products are missing is not by fiat, but simply because no one has added them.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">IBM sometimes used the same number for a system and for the principal component of that system. For example, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_604" title="IBM 604" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 604</a> Calculating Unit is a component of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_604" title="IBM 604" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 604</a> Calculating Punch.</p></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); line-height: 19px; font-size: 13px; "><h3 style="color: black; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; width: auto; font-size: 17px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span class="mw-headline" id="Keypunches.2C_verifiers.2C_and_derived_machines"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_punch" title="Key punch" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Keypunches</a>, verifiers, and derived machines</span></h3><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAUAAAANCAYAAABhPKSIAAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAACtJREFUeF7NjbEJAAAIw7zRu/w5ouBUBEeHDM2QGiA8kObBULuFcJbSXN8T78SqnpKltAIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=); "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keypunch" title="Keypunch" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Hollerith Keyboard (pantograph) punch</a> — Manual card punch, 1890<sup id="cite_ref-0" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-0" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_001" title="IBM 001" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 001</a> — Mechanical punch, 1910 <sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-0" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MNRAS_2-0" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-MNRAS-2" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_002" title="IBM 002" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 002</a> — Port-a-punch<sup id="cite_ref-IBMSp2_3-0" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-IBMSp2-3" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_003&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 003 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 003</a> — Lever Set Gang Punch, 1920 <sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-1" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_010&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 010 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 010</a> — Card Punch<sup id="cite_ref-IBMsm_4-0" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-IBMsm-4" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_011" title="IBM 011" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 011</a> — Electric punch, 1923<sup id="cite_ref-Fierheller_5-0" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Fierheller-5" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_012" title="IBM 012" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 012</a> — Duplicating Punch, 1926<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-2" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_013&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 013 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 013</a> — Badge Punch<sup id="cite_ref-IBMsm_4-1" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-IBMsm-4" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_015" title="IBM 015" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 015</a> — Motor Drive Punch, 1915<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-3" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_016" title="IBM 016" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 016</a> — Motor Drive Duplicating Punch (key punch), 1927<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-4" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MNRAS_2-1" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-MNRAS-2" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_020&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 020 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 020</a> — Card Punch<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-0" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_024" title="IBM 024" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 024</a> — Card Punch (electronic - tube, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary-coded_decimal#IBM_and_BCD" title="Binary-coded decimal" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">BCD</a> zone codes); 1949</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_026" title="IBM 026" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 026</a> — Printing Card Punch (electronic - tube, BCD zone codes); 1949</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_027&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 027 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 027</a> — Card Proof Punch, 1956<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-5" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_028" title="IBM 028" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 028</a> — Printing Card Proof Punch, 1956<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-6" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_029" title="IBM 029" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 029</a> — Card Punch (electric - diodes & relays, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EBCDIC" title="EBCDIC" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">EBCDIC</a> zone codes); 1964<sup id="cite_ref-vvp_7-0" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-vvp-7" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_031" title="IBM 031" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 031</a> — Alphabetical Duplicating Punch; 1933<sup id="cite_ref-vvp2_8-0" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-vvp2-8" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_032" title="IBM 032" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 032</a> — Printing Punch; 1933<sup id="cite_ref-vvp2_8-1" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-vvp2-8" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_036" title="IBM 036" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 036</a> — Alphabetical Printing Punch, 1930<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-7" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_037&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 037 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 037</a> — Alphabetic Stencil Punch<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-1" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_040&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 040 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 040</a> — Tape Controlled Card Punch; 1941<sup id="cite_ref-vvp_7-1" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-vvp-7" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_041&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 041 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 041</a> — Tape to Card Punch<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-2" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_043&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 043 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 043</a> — Tape Controlled Card Punch<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-3" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_044&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 044 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 044</a> — Tape Controlled Card Punch<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-4" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_046&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 046 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 046</a> — Tape-to-Card Punch<sup id="cite_ref-CES_9-0" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CES-9" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_047&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 047 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 047</a> — Tape-to-Card Printing Punch<sup id="cite_ref-CES_9-1" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CES-9" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_051&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 051 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 051</a> — Mechanical verifier</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_052&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 052 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 052</a> — Motorized verifier</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_053&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 053 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 053</a> — Motor Drive Verifier<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-5" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_054&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 054 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 054</a> — Motor Drive Verifier<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-6" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_055&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 055 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 055</a> — Alphabetic verifier, 1946<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-8" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_056" title="IBM 056" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 056</a> — Card Verifier (electronic - tube, BCD zone codes); 1949<sup id="cite_ref-CES_9-2" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CES-9" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_058&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 058 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 058</a> — Card Operated Typewriter<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-7" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_059" title="IBM 059" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 059</a> — Card Verifier (electric, diodes & relays, EBCDIC zone codes); 1964<sup id="cite_ref-vvp_7-2" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-vvp-7" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_060&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 060 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 060</a> — Card to Tape Punch (5 channel)<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-8" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_063&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 063 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 063</a> — Card-Controlled Tape Punch<sup id="cite_ref-CES_9-3" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CES-9" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_Data_Transceiver&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM Data Transceiver (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM Data Transceiver</a> — A 65 or 66 in combination with a 67 or 68<sup id="cite_ref-IBMsm_4-2" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-IBMsm-4" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAUAAAANCAYAAABhPKSIAAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAACtJREFUeF7NjbEJAAAIw7zRu/w5ouBUBEeHDM2QGiA8kObBULuFcJbSXN8T78SqnpKltAIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=); "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_065&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 065 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 065</a> — Data Transceiver Card Unit<sup id="cite_ref-IBMsm_4-3" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-IBMsm-4" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CES_9-4" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CES-9" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_066&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 066 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 066</a> — Data Transceiver Printing Card Unit<sup id="cite_ref-CES_9-5" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CES-9" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_067&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 067 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 067</a> — Telegraph Signal Unit for 065/066 <sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-9" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_068&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 068 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 068</a> — Telephone Signal Unit for 065/066 <sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-10" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_116&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 116 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 116</a> — Numeric Duplicating Punch<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-9" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_129" title="IBM 129" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 129</a> — Card Data Recorder (integrated circuits - <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_Logic_Technology" title="Solid Logic Technology" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">SLT</a>, EBCDIC zone codes); 1971</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_131&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 131 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 131</a> — Alphabetic Duplicating Punch<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-10" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_143&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 143 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 143</a> — Tape Controlled Card Punch<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-11" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_151&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 151 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 151</a> — Verifier<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-12" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_155&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 155 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 155</a> — Numeric Verifier<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-13" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_156&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 156 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 156</a> — Alphabetic Verifier<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-14" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_163&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 163 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 163</a> — Card Controlled Tape Punch<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-15" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_210&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 210 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 210</a> — Electric Verifier<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-16" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_797&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 797 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 797</a> — Document Numbering Punch; 1951<sup id="cite_ref-vvp2_8-2" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-vvp2-8" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_824" title="IBM 824" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 824</a> — Typewriter Card Punch<sup id="cite_ref-CES_9-6" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CES-9" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_826" title="IBM 826" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 826</a> — Typewriter Card Punch Printing<sup id="cite_ref-CES_9-7" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CES-9" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_884&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 884 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 884</a> — Typewriter Tape Punch <sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-10" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_963&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 963 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 963</a> — Tape Punch<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-11" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_5496&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 5496 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 5496</a> Data Recorder - Keypunch for IBM <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System/3" title="System/3" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">System/3</a>'s <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punched_card#IBM_96_column_punched_card_format" title="Punched card" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">96 column cards</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punched_card" title="Punched card" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM Port-A-Punch</a> — Port-A-Punch; 1958</li></ul><h3 style="color: black; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; width: auto; font-size: 17px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span class="mw-headline" id="Sorters.2C_Statistical.2C_and_derived_machines">
<br />Sorters, Statistical, and derived machines</span></h3><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAUAAAANCAYAAABhPKSIAAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAACtJREFUeF7NjbEJAAAIw7zRu/w5ouBUBEeHDM2QGiA8kObBULuFcJbSXN8T78SqnpKltAIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=); "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hollerith_automatic_sorter&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hollerith automatic sorter (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Hollerith automatic sorter</a> - Horizontal sorter, 1901<sup id="cite_ref-IBMattic2_11-0" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-IBMattic2-11" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hollerith_2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hollerith 2 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Hollerith 2</a> - Card counting sorter<sup id="cite_ref-Fierheller_5-1" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Fierheller-5" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollerith" title="Hollerith" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Hollerith</a> (IBM 70) — Vertical Sorter; 1908<sup id="cite_ref-vvp_7-3" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-vvp-7" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-vvp2_8-3" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-vvp2-8" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_71&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 71 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 71</a> — Vertical Sorter; 1928<sup id="cite_ref-vvp2_8-4" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-vvp2-8" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_74&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 74 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 74</a> — Printing Card Counting Sorter, 1930 <sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-12" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_75&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 75 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 75</a> — Card Counting Sorter<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-17" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_76&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 76 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 76</a> — Searching Sorter Punch<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-18" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_80_series_Card_Sorters" title="IBM 80 series Card Sorters" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 080</a> — Card Sorter, 1925<sup id="cite_ref-vvp2_8-5" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-vvp2-8" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-13" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_081&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 081 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 081</a> — Card Stencil Sorter</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_80_series_Card_Sorters" title="IBM 80 series Card Sorters" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 082</a> — Card Sorter, 1948<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-14" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CES_9-8" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CES-9" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_80_series_Card_Sorters" title="IBM 80 series Card Sorters" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 083</a> — Card Sorter, 1955<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-15" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CES_9-9" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CES-9" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_80_series_Card_Sorters" title="IBM 80 series Card Sorters" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 084</a> — Card Sorter, 1959<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-16" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_101" title="IBM 101" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 101</a> — Statistical Machine; 1952<sup id="cite_ref-CES_9-10" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CES-9" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_106&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 106 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 106</a> — Coupon Statistical Machine<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-19" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_108&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 108 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 108</a> — Card Proving Machine; 196X<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAUAAAANCAYAAABhPKSIAAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAACtJREFUeF7NjbEJAAAIw7zRu/w5ouBUBEeHDM2QGiA8kObBULuFcJbSXN8T78SqnpKltAIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=); "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_867&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 867 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 867</a> — <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_108&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 108 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 108</a> Output Typewriter<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-17" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_109&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 109 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 109</a> — Statistical Sorter</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_5486&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 5486 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 5486</a> Card Sorter- Sorter IBM <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System/3" title="System/3" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">System/3</a>'s <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punched_card#IBM_96_column_punched_card_format" title="Punched card" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">96 column cards</a></li></ul><h3 style="color: black; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; width: auto; font-size: 17px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span class="mw-headline" id="Collators">
<br />Collators</span></h3><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAUAAAANCAYAAABhPKSIAAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAACtJREFUeF7NjbEJAAAIw7zRu/w5ouBUBEeHDM2QGiA8kObBULuFcJbSXN8T78SqnpKltAIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=); "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_072&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 072 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 072</a> — Alphabetic Collator<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-20" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_077&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 077 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 077</a> — Electric Punched Card Collator; 1937<sup id="cite_ref-vvp_7-4" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-vvp-7" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_078&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 078 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 078</a> — Stencil Collator<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-21" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_079&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 079 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 079</a> — Stencil Printing Collator<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-22" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_085&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 085 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 085</a> — Numerical Collator; 1957<sup id="cite_ref-vvp_7-5" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-vvp-7" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_087&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 087 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 087</a> — Alphabetic Collator<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-18" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-vvp2_8-6" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-vvp2-8" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_088&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 088 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 088</a> — Numerical Collator<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-19" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_089&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 089 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 089</a> — Alphabetic Collator<sup id="cite_ref-CES_9-11" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CES-9" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_188&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 188 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 188</a> — Alphabetic Collator</li></ul><h3 style="color: black; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; width: auto; font-size: 17px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span class="editsection" style="float: right; margin-left: 5px; font-size: 13px; ">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_IBM_products&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Reproducing Punch, Summary Punch, Gang Punch, and derived machines" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Reproducing_Punch.2C_Summary_Punch.2C_Gang_Punch.2C_and_derived_machines">Reproducing Punch, Summary Punch, Gang Punch, and derived machines</span></h3><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAUAAAANCAYAAABhPKSIAAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAACtJREFUeF7NjbEJAAAIw7zRu/w5ouBUBEeHDM2QGiA8kObBULuFcJbSXN8T78SqnpKltAIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=); "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_501&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 501 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 501</a> — Numbering Gang Punch, 1926<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-20" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_512&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 512 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 512</a> — Reproducing Punch, 1940<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-21" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_513" title="IBM 513" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 513</a> — Reproducing Punch, 1945<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-22" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_514" title="IBM 514" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 514</a> — Reproducing Punch<sup id="cite_ref-CES_9-12" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CES-9" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-vvp2_8-7" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-vvp2-8" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_515&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 515 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 515</a> — Interpreting Reproducing Punch<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-23" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_516&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 516 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 516</a> — Duplicating Summary Punch<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-24" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_517&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 517 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 517</a> — Gang Summary Punch, 1929<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-23" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_518&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 518 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 518</a> — Gang Summary Punch, 1929<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-24" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_519" title="IBM 519" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 519</a> — End Printing Reproducing Punch, 1946<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-25" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CES_9-13" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CES-9" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_520&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 520 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 520</a> — Computing Punch<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-25" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_522&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 522 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 522</a> — Duplicating Summary Punch<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-26" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_523&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 523 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 523</a> — Gang Summary Punch; 1949<sup id="cite_ref-vvp_7-6" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-vvp-7" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_524&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 524 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 524</a> — Electronic (tube) summary punch, non-printing, BCD zone codes<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-26" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_526&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 526 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 526</a> — Printing Summary Punch (electronic, BCD zone codes)<sup id="cite_ref-IBMsm_4-4" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-IBMsm-4" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_528&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 528 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 528</a> — Accumulating Reproducer<sup id="cite_ref-OpGuide_12-0" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-OpGuide-12" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_534&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 534 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 534</a> — Card Punch (connects to 870, 108, 1230, 1232)<sup id="cite_ref-IBMsm_4-5" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-IBMsm-4" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_545&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 545 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 545</a> — Output Punch (an 029 plus connector)<sup id="cite_ref-IBMsm_4-6" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-IBMsm-4" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_549&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 549 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 549</a> — Ticket Converter<sup id="cite_ref-OpGuide_12-1" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-OpGuide-12" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup></li></ul><h3 style="color: black; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; width: auto; font-size: 17px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span class="mw-headline" id="Interpreters">
<br />Interpreters</span></h3><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAUAAAANCAYAAABhPKSIAAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAACtJREFUeF7NjbEJAAAIw7zRu/w5ouBUBEeHDM2QGiA8kObBULuFcJbSXN8T78SqnpKltAIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=); "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_548&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 548 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 548</a> — Interpreter<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-27" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_550" title="IBM 550" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 550</a> — Numerical Interpreter, 1935<sup id="cite_ref-vvp2_8-8" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-vvp2-8" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-27" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_551&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 551 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 551</a> — Check Writing Interpreter, 1935<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-28" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_552&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 552 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 552</a> — Alphabetic Interpreter<sup id="cite_ref-CES_9-14" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CES-9" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_555&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 555 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 555</a> — Alphabetic Interpreter</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_557" title="IBM 557" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 557</a> — Alphabetic Interpreter<sup id="cite_ref-CES_9-15" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CES-9" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_938&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 938 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 938</a> — Electrostatic Card Printer<sup id="cite_ref-Fierheller_5-2" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Fierheller-5" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup></li></ul><h3 style="color: black; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; width: auto; font-size: 17px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span class="editsection" style="float: right; margin-left: 5px; font-size: 13px; ">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_IBM_products&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Tabulators, Accounting machines" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Tabulators.2C_Accounting_machines"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabulating_machine" title="Tabulating machine" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Tabulators, Accounting machines</a></span></h3><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAUAAAANCAYAAABhPKSIAAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAACtJREFUeF7NjbEJAAAIw7zRu/w5ouBUBEeHDM2QGiA8kObBULuFcJbSXN8T78SqnpKltAIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=); "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hollerith_Census_Tabulator&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hollerith Census Tabulator (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Hollerith Census Tabulator</a> — 1890<sup id="cite_ref-vvp_7-7" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-vvp-7" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IBMattic_13-0" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-IBMattic-13" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CUTab_14-0" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CUTab-14" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hollerith_Integrating_Tabulator&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hollerith Integrating Tabulator (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Hollerith Integrating Tabulator</a> — 1896<sup id="cite_ref-CUTab_14-1" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CUTab-14" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hollerith_Automatic_Feed_Tabulator&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hollerith Automatic Feed Tabulator (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Hollerith Automatic Feed Tabulator</a> — 1900<sup id="cite_ref-CUTab_14-2" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CUTab-14" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hollerith_Type_I_Tabulator&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hollerith Type I Tabulator (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Hollerith Type I Tabulator</a> (IBM 090) — 1906<sup id="cite_ref-CUTab_14-3" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CUTab-14" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hollerith_Type_III_Tabulator&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hollerith Type III Tabulator (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Hollerith Type III Tabulator</a> (IBM 091) — 1921<sup id="cite_ref-CUTab_14-4" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CUTab-14" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hollerith_Type_3-S_Tabulator&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hollerith Type 3-S Tabulator (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Hollerith Type 3-S Tabulator</a> — 192x<sup id="cite_ref-CUTab_14-5" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CUTab-14" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hollerith_Type_IV_Tabulator&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hollerith Type IV Tabulator (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Hollerith Type IV Tabulator</a> (IBM 301) — 1928<sup id="cite_ref-vvp2_8-9" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-vvp2-8" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CUTab_14-6" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CUTab-14" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Columbia_Difference_Tabulator&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Columbia Difference Tabulator (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Columbia Difference Tabulator</a> — 1931<sup id="cite_ref-CUTab_14-7" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CUTab-14" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_092&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 092 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 092</a> — 5-counter Accounting Machine<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-28" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_093&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 093 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 093</a> — 5-counter Accounting Machines<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-29" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_094&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 094 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 094</a> — Non-print Automatic Checking Machine<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-30" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_211&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 211 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 211</a> — Accounting Machine<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-31" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_212&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 212 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 212</a> — Accounting Machine<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-32" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_285&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 285 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 285</a> — Numerical Accounting Machine; 1927<sup id="cite_ref-vvp_7-8" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-vvp-7" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-29" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_298&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 298 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 298</a> — Numerical Accounting Machine<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-33" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_301&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 301 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 301</a> — see Hollerith Type IV above</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_401&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 401 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 401</a> — Tabulator; 1933<sup id="cite_ref-CUTab_14-8" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CUTab-14" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_402" title="IBM 402" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 402</a> — Alphabetic Accounting Machine 1948<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-30" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CES_9-16" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CES-9" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_402" title="IBM 402" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 402</a> — Computing Accounting Machine (with solid state computing device)<sup id="cite_ref-CAM_15-0" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CAM-15" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CUTab_14-9" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CUTab-14" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_403&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 403 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 403</a> — Alphabetic Accounting Machine, 1948<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-31" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CES_9-17" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CES-9" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup>(MLP - multiple line printing)<sup id="cite_ref-Fierheller_5-3" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Fierheller-5" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_403&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 403 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 403</a> — Computing Accounting Machine (with solid state computing device)<sup id="cite_ref-CAM_15-1" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CAM-15" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_404&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 404 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 404</a> — Accounting Machine</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_405" title="IBM 405" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 405</a> — Accounting Machine; 1934<sup id="cite_ref-vvp_7-9" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-vvp-7" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IBMattic3IL_16-0" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-IBMattic3IL-16" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CUTab_14-10" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CUTab-14" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_407" title="IBM 407" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 407</a> — Alphabetic Accounting Machine; 1949<sup id="cite_ref-vvp_7-10" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-vvp-7" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-32" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CES_9-18" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CES-9" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CUTab_14-11" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CUTab-14" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_407" title="IBM 407" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 407</a> — Computing Accounting Machine (with solid state computing device)<sup id="cite_ref-CAM_15-2" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CAM-15" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_408&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 408 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 408</a> — Alphabetic Accounting Machine, 1957<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-33" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CES_9-19" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CES-9" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_409&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 409 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 409</a> — Accounting Machine; 1959<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-34" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-17" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>18<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_412&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 412 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 412</a> — Accounting Machine</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_416&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 416 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 416</a> — Numerical Accounting Machine<sup id="cite_ref-IBMOpG_18-0" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-IBMOpG-18" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup>(version of 405)<sup id="cite_ref-Fierheller_5-4" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Fierheller-5" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_417&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 417 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 417</a> — Numerical Accounting Machine<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-34" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_418&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 418 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 418</a> — Numerical Accounting Machine<sup id="cite_ref-Fierheller_5-5" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Fierheller-5" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_419&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 419 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 419</a> — Numerical Accounting Machine<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-35" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CES_9-20" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CES-9" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup>(version of 402)<sup id="cite_ref-Fierheller_5-6" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Fierheller-5" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_420&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 420 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 420</a> — Alphabetical Accounting Machine<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-35" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_421&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 421 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 421</a> — WTC Computing Accounting Machine (with solid state computing device)<sup id="cite_ref-CAM_15-3" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CAM-15" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_424&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 424 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 424</a> — WTC Computing Accounting Machine (with solid state computing device)<sup id="cite_ref-CAM_15-4" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CAM-15" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_426&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 426 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 426</a> — Accounting Machine<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-36" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_427&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 427 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 427</a> — WTC Accounting Machine (for instance, suitable for British £sd currency)</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_444&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 444 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 444</a> — Accounting Machine<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-37" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_447&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 447 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 447</a> — WTC Computing Accounting Machine (with solid state computing device)<sup id="cite_ref-CAM_15-5" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CAM-15" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_450&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 450 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 450</a> — Accounting Machine<sup id="cite_ref-lars_6-38" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-lars-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_858&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 858 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 858</a> — Cardatype Accounting Machine, 1955<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-36" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAUAAAANCAYAAABhPKSIAAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAACtJREFUeF7NjbEJAAAIw7zRu/w5ouBUBEeHDM2QGiA8kObBULuFcJbSXN8T78SqnpKltAIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=); "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">IBM 858 — IBM 858 Control Unit<sup id="cite_ref-IBMsm_4-7" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-IBMsm-4" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_863&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 863 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 863</a> — IBM 858 Arithmetic Unit<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-37" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_866&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 866 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 866</a> — IBM 858 Non-Transmitting Typewriter<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-38" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_868&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 868 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 868</a> — IBM 858 Transmitting Typewriter<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-39" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_972-1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 972-1 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 972-1</a> — IBM 858 Auxiliary Keyboard<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-40" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_916&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 916 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 916</a> — Bill Feed<sup id="cite_ref-OpGuide_12-2" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-OpGuide-12" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_921&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 921 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 921</a> — Automatic Carriage<sup id="cite_ref-IBMOpG_18-1" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-IBMOpG-18" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_922&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 922 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 922</a> — Tape-Controlled Carriage<sup id="cite_ref-OpGuide_12-3" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-OpGuide-12" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_923&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 923 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 923</a> — Tape-Controlled Carriage<sup id="cite_ref-OpGuide_12-4" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-OpGuide-12" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup></li></ul><h3 style="color: black; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; width: auto; font-size: 17px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span class="editsection" style="float: right; margin-left: 5px; font-size: 13px; ">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_IBM_products&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Calculating devices" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Calculating_devices">Calculating devices</span></h3><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAUAAAANCAYAAABhPKSIAAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAACtJREFUeF7NjbEJAAAIw7zRu/w5ouBUBEeHDM2QGiA8kObBULuFcJbSXN8T78SqnpKltAIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=); "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_600&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 600 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 600</a> — Automatic Multiplying Punch; 1931<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-41" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bashe_19-0" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Bashe-19" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_601&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 601 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 601</a> — Electric Multiplier aka Automatic Cross-Footing Multiplying Punch; 1933<sup id="cite_ref-Bashe_19-1" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Bashe-19" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-CUCal_20-0" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CUCal-20" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_Relay_Calculator&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM Relay Calculator (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM Relay Calculator</a> — aka The IBM Pluggable Sequence Relay Calculator (Aberdeen Machine)<sup id="cite_ref-CUCal_20-1" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CUCal-20" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IBMSp2_3-1" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-IBMSp2-3" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_602" title="IBM 602" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 602</a> — Calculating Punch; 1946<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-42" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CUCal_20-2" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CUCal-20" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_602A&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 602A (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 602A</a> — Calculating Punch; 1948<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-43" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CUCal_20-3" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CUCal-20" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_603" title="IBM 603" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 603</a> — Electronic Multiplier; 1946<sup id="cite_ref-vvp_7-11" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-vvp-7" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IBMattic3IL_16-1" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-IBMattic3IL-16" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CUCal_20-4" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CUCal-20" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_604" title="IBM 604" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 604</a> — Electronic Calculating Punch; 1948<sup id="cite_ref-CUCal_20-5" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CUCal-20" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAUAAAANCAYAAABhPKSIAAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAACtJREFUeF7NjbEJAAAIw7zRu/w5ouBUBEeHDM2QGiA8kObBULuFcJbSXN8T78SqnpKltAIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=); "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">IBM 604 — IBM 604 Calculating Unit</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_521&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 521 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 521</a> — IBM 604 Card Read Punch<sup id="cite_ref-OpGuide_12-5" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-OpGuide-12" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_541&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 541 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 541</a> — IBM 604 Card Read Punch<sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-44" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_605&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 605 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 605</a> — Electronic Calculator; 1949<sup id="cite_ref-CUCal_20-6" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CUCal-20" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAUAAAANCAYAAABhPKSIAAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAACtJREFUeF7NjbEJAAAIw7zRu/w5ouBUBEeHDM2QGiA8kObBULuFcJbSXN8T78SqnpKltAIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=); "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_527&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 527 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 527</a> — IBM 605 High Speed Punch<sup id="cite_ref-CUCal_20-7" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CUCal-20" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_CPC" title="IBM CPC" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM CPC</a> — Card Programmed Electronic Calculator; 1949<sup id="cite_ref-vvp_7-12" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-vvp-7" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CUCal_20-8" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CUCal-20" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAUAAAANCAYAAABhPKSIAAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAACtJREFUeF7NjbEJAAAIw7zRu/w5ouBUBEeHDM2QGiA8kObBULuFcJbSXN8T78SqnpKltAIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=); "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_CPC" title="IBM CPC" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 941</a> — IBM CPC Auxiliary Storage Unit; (16 – 10-digit words)<sup id="cite_ref-vvp_7-13" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-vvp-7" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_607&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 607 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 607</a> — Electronic Calculator; 1953<sup id="cite_ref-CUCal_20-9" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-CUCal-20" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAUAAAANCAYAAABhPKSIAAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAACtJREFUeF7NjbEJAAAIw7zRu/w5ouBUBEeHDM2QGiA8kObBULuFcJbSXN8T78SqnpKltAIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=); "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_529&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 529 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 529</a> — IBM 607 Card Read Punch<sup id="cite_ref-OpGuide_12-6" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-OpGuide-12" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_542&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 542 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 542</a> — IBM 607 Card Read Punch <sup id="cite_ref-Gille_1-45" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-Gille-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_942&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 942 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 942</a> — IBM 607 Electronic Storage Unit; 1953<sup id="cite_ref-OpGuide_12-7" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-OpGuide-12" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_608" title="IBM 608" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 608</a> — <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Transistorized</a> Electronic Calculator; 1957</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_609&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 609 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 609</a> — Calculator; (transistorized) 1960</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_632" title="IBM 632" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 632</a> — Electronic Typing Calculator; 1958</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_633&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 633 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 633</a> — Electronic Typing Calculator<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAUAAAANCAYAAABhPKSIAAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAACtJREFUeF7NjbEJAAAIw7zRu/w5ouBUBEeHDM2QGiA8kObBULuFcJbSXN8T78SqnpKltAIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=); "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_614&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 614 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 614</a> — <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_632/3&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 632/3 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 632/3</a> Typewriter output<sup id="cite_ref-IBMsm_4-9" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-IBMsm-4" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_630&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 630 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 630</a> — IBM 632 Arithmetic Unit<sup id="cite_ref-IBMsm_4-10" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-IBMsm-4" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_631&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 631 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 631</a> — IBM 632 Buffer memory<sup id="cite_ref-IBMsm_4-11" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IBM_products#cite_note-IBMsm-4" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_634&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 634 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 634</a> — IBM 632 Non-printing Card Punch</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_635&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 635 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 635</a> — IBM 632 Non-Printing Card Punch</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_636&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 636 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 636</a> — IBM 632/3 Printing Card Punch</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_637&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 637 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 637</a> — IBM 632 Printing Card Punch</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_638&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 638 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 638</a> — IBM 632 Companion Keyboard</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_641&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 641 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 641</a> — IBM 632 Card Reader</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_645&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 645 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 645</a> — IBM 632 Card Reader</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_648&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 648 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 648</a> — IBM 632 Tape Punch</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_649&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 649 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 649</a> — IBM 632 Paper Tape Reader</li></ul></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_6400_Series" title="IBM 6400 Series" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 6400 Series</a> — Transistorized Electronic Calculator/accounting machine family produced beginning in 1962</li></ul><h3 style="color: black; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; width: auto; font-size: 17px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span class="mw-headline" id="Other_Unit_Record_Equipment">
<br />Other Unit Record Equipment</span></h3><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAUAAAANCAYAAABhPKSIAAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAACtJREFUeF7NjbEJAAAIw7zRu/w5ouBUBEeHDM2QGiA8kObBULuFcJbSXN8T78SqnpKltAIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=); "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Electromatic_Table_Printing_Machine" title="IBM Electromatic Table Printing Machine" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM Electromatic Table Printing Machine</a> — Typesetting-quality printer; 1946 </li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voting_machine#Punched_Card" title="Voting machine" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM Votomatic</a> — Voting machine (Port-A-Punch balloting)</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_870&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 870 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 870</a> — Document Writing System<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAUAAAANCAYAAABhPKSIAAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAACtJREFUeF7NjbEJAAAIw7zRu/w5ouBUBEeHDM2QGiA8kObBULuFcJbSXN8T78SqnpKltAIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=); "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_834&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 834 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 834</a> — IBM 870 Control Unit</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_836&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 836 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 836</a> — IBM 870 Control Unit</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_865&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 865 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 865</a> — IBM 870 Output typewriters</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_866&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 866 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 866</a> — IBM 870 Non-transmitting Typewriter</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_868&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 868 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 868</a> — IBM 870 Transmitting Typewriter</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_536&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 536 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 536</a> — IBM 870 Printing Card Punch</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_961&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 961 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 961</a> — IBM 870 Tape Punch (8 channel)</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_962&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 962 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 962</a> — IBM 870 Tape Punch (5 track)</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_972-2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 972-2 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 972-2</a> — IBM 870 Auxiliary Keyboard</li></ul></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_939&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 939 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 939</a> — Electrostatic Address Label Printer</li></ul></span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6575490034019035309.post-91132240858405202202011-08-24T02:20:00.000-07:002011-08-24T02:21:21.301-07:00IBM Architectural<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); "><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The System/360 series had a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">computer system architecture</a> specification. This specification does not make any assumptions on the implementation itself, but rather describes the interfaces and the expected behavior of an implementation. The architecture describes mandatory interfaces that must be available on all implementations and optional interfaces which may or may not be implemented.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Some of the aspects of this architecture are:</p><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAUAAAANCAYAAABhPKSIAAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAACtJREFUeF7NjbEJAAAIw7zRu/w5ouBUBEeHDM2QGiA8kObBULuFcJbSXN8T78SqnpKltAIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=); "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_endian" title="Big endian" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Big endian</a> byte ordering</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">A processor with<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAUAAAANCAYAAABhPKSIAAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAACtJREFUeF7NjbEJAAAIw7zRu/w5ouBUBEeHDM2QGiA8kObBULuFcJbSXN8T78SqnpKltAIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=); "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">16 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/32-bit" title="32-bit" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">32-bit</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_purpose_register" title="General purpose register" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">General purpose registers</a> (R0-R15)</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">A 64-bit Program status word (PSW) which describes (among other things)<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAUAAAANCAYAAABhPKSIAAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAACtJREFUeF7NjbEJAAAIw7zRu/w5ouBUBEeHDM2QGiA8kObBULuFcJbSXN8T78SqnpKltAIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=); "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interrupt" title="Interrupt" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Interrupt</a> masks</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Privilege states</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">A condition code</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">A 24-bit <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Program_counter" title="Program counter" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">instruction address</a></li></ul></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">An interruption mechanism, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interrupt" title="Interrupt" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">maskable</a> and unmaskable interruption classes and subclasses</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">An <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruction_set" title="Instruction set" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">instruction set</a>. Each instruction is wholly described and also defines the conditions under which an exception is recognized in the form of program interruption.</li></ul></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_storage" title="Primary storage" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">memory (called storage) subsystem</a> with<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAUAAAANCAYAAABhPKSIAAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAACtJREFUeF7NjbEJAAAIw7zRu/w5ouBUBEeHDM2QGiA8kObBULuFcJbSXN8T78SqnpKltAIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=); "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">8 bits per byte</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">A special processor communication area starting at address 0</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">24-bit addressing</li></ul></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Manual control operations that allow<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAUAAAANCAYAAABhPKSIAAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAACtJREFUeF7NjbEJAAAIw7zRu/w5ouBUBEeHDM2QGiA8kObBULuFcJbSXN8T78SqnpKltAIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=); "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booting" title="Booting" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">bootstrap</a> process (a process called Initial Program Load or IPL)</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Operator-initiated interrupts</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Resetting the system</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Basic debugging facilities</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Manual display and modifications of the system's state (memory and processor)</li></ul></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">An Input/Output mechanism - which does not describe the devices themselves</li></ul><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Some of the optional features are:</p><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAUAAAANCAYAAABhPKSIAAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAACtJREFUeF7NjbEJAAAIw7zRu/w5ouBUBEeHDM2QGiA8kObBULuFcJbSXN8T78SqnpKltAIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=); "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary-coded_decimal" title="Binary-coded decimal" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Binary-coded decimal</a> instructions</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_point" title="Floating point" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Floating point</a> instructions</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Timing facilities (interval timer)</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Key-controlled memory protection</li></ul><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">All models of System/360, except for the Model 20, implemented that specification.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Binary arithmetic and logical operations could be performed as register-to-register and as memory-to-register/register-to-memory as a standard feature. If the Commercial Instruction Set option was installed, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary-coded_decimal" title="Binary-coded decimal" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">packed decimal</a> arithmetic could be performed as memory-to-memory with some memory-to-register operations. The Scientific Instruction Set feature, if installed, provided access to four<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_point" title="Floating point" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">floating point</a> registers that could be programmed for either <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/32-bit" title="32-bit" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">32-bit</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/64-bit" title="64-bit" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">64-bit</a> floating point operations. The Models 85 and 195 could also operate on 128-bit extended-precision floating point numbers stored in pairs of floating point registers, and software provided emulation in other models. The System/360 used an 8-bit byte, 32-bit word, 64-bit double-word, and 4-bit <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nybble" title="Nybble" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">nibble</a>. Machine instructions had operators with operands, which could contain register numbers or memory addresses. This complex combination of instruction options resulted in a variety of instruction lengths and formats.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Memory addressing was accomplished using a base-plus-displacement scheme, with registers 1 through F (15). A displacement was encoded in 12 bits, thus allowing a 4096-byte displacement (0-4095), as the offset from the address put in a base register. Register 0 could not be used as a base register, as "0" was reserved to indicate an address in the first 4 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilobyte" title="Kilobyte" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">KB</a> of memory. This permitted initial execution of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_Program_Load" title="Initial Program Load" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IPL</a> ("Initial Program Load" or boot) since base registers would not necessarily be set to 0 during the first few instruction cycles.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">With the exception of the Model 67, all addresses were real memory addresses. Virtual memory was not available in most IBM mainframes until the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System/370" title="System/370" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">System/370</a> series. The Model 67 introduced a virtual memory architecture which was used by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michigan_Terminal_System" title="Michigan Terminal System" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">MTS</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CP-67" title="CP-67" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">CP-67</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TSS/360" title="TSS/360" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">TSS/360</a>, but not by IBM's mainline System/360 operating systems.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The System/360 machine-code instructions were 2 (no memory operands), 4 (one operand), or 6 bytes (two operands) long. Instructions were always situated on 2-byte boundaries.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Operations like the MVC (Move-Character) (Hex: D2) could only move at most 256 bytes of information. Moving more than 256 bytes of data required multiple MVC operations. (The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System/370" title="System/370" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">System/370</a> series introduced a family of more powerful instructions such as the MVCL "Move-Character-Long" instruction, which allows 16 MB to be moved at once.)</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">An operand was two bytes long, typically representing an address as a 4-bit <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nybble" title="Nybble" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">nibble</a> denoting a base register and a 12-bit displacement relative to the contents of that register, in the range <tt style="font-family: monospace, 'Courier New'; ">000–FFF</tt>(shown here as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexadecimal" title="Hexadecimal" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">hexadecimal</a> numbers). The address corresponding to that operand would be the contents of the specified general-purpose register plus the displacement. For example, an MVC instruction that moved 256 bytes (with length code 255 in hexadecimal as <tt style="font-family: monospace, 'Courier New'; ">FF</tt>) from base register 7, plus displacement <tt style="font-family: monospace, 'Courier New'; ">000</tt>, to base register 8, plus displacement <tt style="font-family: monospace, 'Courier New'; ">001</tt>, would be coded as the 6-byte instruction "<tt style="font-family: monospace, 'Courier New'; ">D2FF 8001 7000</tt>" (operator/length/address1/address2).</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The System/360 was designed to separate the "system state" from the "problem state". This provided a basic level of security and recoverability from programming errors. Problem (user) programs could not modify data or program storage associated with the system state. Addressing, data, or operation exception errors caused the system state to be entered through a controlled routine allowing the operating system to attempt to correct or terminate the program in error. Similarly, certain processor hardware errors could be recovered through the "machine check" routines.</p></span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6575490034019035309.post-67072313789332090342011-08-24T02:19:00.000-07:002011-08-24T02:20:21.745-07:00IBM Tape drives<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); "><h3 style="color: black; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; width: auto; font-size: 17px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">
<br /></h3><div class="thumb tleft" style="margin-bottom: 1.3em; width: auto; background-color: transparent; float: left; clear: left; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-right: 1.4em; margin-left: 0px; "><div class="thumbinner" style="min-width: 100px; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; background-color: rgb(249, 249, 249); font-size: 12px; text-align: center; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; width: 222px; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IBM_System_360_tape_drives.jpg" class="image" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/IBM_System_360_tape_drives.jpg/220px-IBM_System_360_tape_drives.jpg" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" style="border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); " /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align: left; border-top-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-bottom-style: none; border-left-style: none; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; line-height: 1.4em; padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; font-size: 11px; "><div class="magnify" style="float: right; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IBM_System_360_tape_drives.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; display: block; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><img src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" style="border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; display: block; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; " /></a></div>IBM 2401 Tape Drives</div></div></div><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The 2400 tape drives consisted of a combined drive and control unit, plus individual 1/2" tape drives attached. With the 360, IBM switched from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_7_track" title="IBM 7 track" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 7 track</a> to<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9_track_tape" title="9 track tape" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">9 track tape</a> format. 2400 drives could be purchased that read and wrote 7 track tapes for compatibility with the older <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_729" title="IBM 729" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 729</a> tape drives. In 1967, a slower and cheaper pair of tape drives with integrated control unit was introduced: the 2415. In 1968, the IBM 2420 tape system was released, offering much higher data rates, self-threading tape operation and 1600bpi packing density. It remained in the product line until 1979.</p><h3 style="color: black; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; width: auto; font-size: 17px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span class="mw-headline" id="Unit_record_devices">
<br />Unit record devices</span></h3><div class="thumb tright" style="margin-bottom: 1.3em; width: auto; background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-left: 1.4em; "><div class="thumbinner" style="min-width: 100px; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; background-color: rgb(249, 249, 249); font-size: 12px; text-align: center; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; width: 222px; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IBM_line_printer_1403.JPG" class="image" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/IBM_line_printer_1403.JPG/220px-IBM_line_printer_1403.JPG" width="220" height="231" class="thumbimage" style="border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); " /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align: left; border-top-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-bottom-style: none; border-left-style: none; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; line-height: 1.4em; padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; font-size: 11px; "><div class="magnify" style="float: right; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IBM_line_printer_1403.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; display: block; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><img src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" style="border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; display: block; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; " /></a></div><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_1403" title="IBM 1403" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 1403</a> line printer.</div></div></div><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAUAAAANCAYAAABhPKSIAAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAACtJREFUeF7NjbEJAAAIw7zRu/w5ouBUBEeHDM2QGiA8kObBULuFcJbSXN8T78SqnpKltAIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=); "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Punched card devices included the 2501 card reader and the 2540 card reader punch. Virtually every S/360 had a 2540. The 2560 MFCM ("Multi-Function Card Machine") reader/sorter/punch, listed above, was for the Model 20 only. It had notorious reliability problems (earning humorous acroymns often involving "...Card Muncher" or "Mal-Function Card Machine).</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_printer" title="Line printer" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Line printers</a> were the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_1403" title="IBM 1403" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 1403</a> and the slower <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_1443&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 1443 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 1443</a>.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">A paper tape reader, the IBM 2671, was introduced in 1964. It had a rated speed of 1,000 cps. There were also a paper tape reader and paper tape punch from an earlier era, available only as RPQs (Request Price Quotation). The 1054 (reader) and 1055 (punch), which were carried forward (like the 1052 console typewriter) from the IBM 1050 Teleprocessing System. All these devices operated at a maximum of 15.5 characters per second. The paper tape punch from the IBM 1080 System was also available by RPQ, but at a prohibitively expensive price.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Optical Character Recognition (OCR) devices 1287 and latter the 1288 were available on the 360's. The 1287 could read handwritten numerals, some OCR fonts, and cash register OCR paper tape reels. The 1288 'page reader' could handle up to legal size OCR font typewritten pages, as well as handwritten numerals. Both of these OCR devices employed a 'flying spot' scanning principle, with the raster scan provided by a large CRT, and the reflected light density changes were picked up by a high gain Photo Multiplier tube.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Recognition) was provided by the IBM 1412 and 1419 Cheque Sorters, with Magnetic Ink Printing (for cheque books) on 1445 Printers (a modified 1443 that used an MICR ribbon). 1412/1419 and 1445 were mainly used by Banking Institutions.</li></ul></span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6575490034019035309.post-60748809533247181192011-08-24T02:18:00.000-07:002011-08-24T02:19:17.328-07:00IBM Direct access storage devices (DASD)<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); "><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The first disk drives for the 360 were <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_2302&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 2302 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2302s</a><sup class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; white-space: nowrap; ">:60-65</sup> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_2311" title="IBM 2311" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2311s</a>. The 156 kB/second 2302 was based on the earlier <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_1302" title="IBM 1302" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">1302</a> and was available as a model 3 with two 112.79 MB modules or as a model 4 with four such modules.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The 2311, with a removable <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_1316&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 1316 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">1316</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_pack" title="Disk pack" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">disk pack</a>, was based on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_1311" title="IBM 1311" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 1311</a> and had a theoretical capacity of 7.2 MB, although actual capacity varied with record design.<sup class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; white-space: nowrap; ">31</sup></p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">In 1966, the first <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_2314" title="IBM 2314" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">2314s</a> shipped. This device had up to eight usable disk drives with an integral control unit; there were nine drives, but one had to be reserved as a spare. Each drive used a removable <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_2316&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 2316 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">2316</a> disk pack with a capacity of nearly 28 MB. The disk packs for the 2311 and 2314 were <i>physically</i> large by today's standards — e.g., the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_1316&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 1316 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">1316</a> disk pack was about 14 in (36 cm) in diameter and had six platters stacked on a central spindle. The top and bottom outside platters did not store data. Data were recorded on the inner sides of the top and bottom platters and both sides of the inner platters, providing 10 recording surfaces. The 10 read/write heads moved together across the surfaces of the platters which were formatted with 203 concentric tracks. To reduce the amount of head movement (seeking), data was written in a virtual cylinder from inside top platter down to inside bottom platter. These disks were not usually formatted with fixed-sized sectors as are today's hard drives (though this <i>was</i> done with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CP/CMS" title="CP/CMS" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">CP/CMS</a>). Rather, most S/360 I/O software could customize the length of the data record (variable-length records), as was the case with magnetic tapes.</p><div class="thumb tleft" style="margin-bottom: 1.3em; width: auto; background-color: transparent; float: left; clear: left; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-right: 1.4em; margin-left: 0px; "><div class="thumbinner" style="min-width: 100px; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; background-color: rgb(249, 249, 249); font-size: 12px; text-align: center; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; width: 222px; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IBM2314DiskDrivesAndIBM2540CardReaderPunch.jpg" class="image" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/IBM2314DiskDrivesAndIBM2540CardReaderPunch.jpg/220px-IBM2314DiskDrivesAndIBM2540CardReaderPunch.jpg" width="220" height="145" class="thumbimage" style="border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); " /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align: left; border-top-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-bottom-style: none; border-left-style: none; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; line-height: 1.4em; padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; font-size: 11px; "><div class="magnify" style="float: right; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IBM2314DiskDrivesAndIBM2540CardReaderPunch.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; display: block; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><img src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" style="border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; display: block; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; " /></a></div>IBM 2314 Disk Drives and IBM 2540 Card Reader/Punch at the University of Michigan.</div></div></div><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; "><span id="IBM2301"></span>Some of the most powerful early S/360s used high-speed head-per-track drum storage devices. The 3,500 RPM 2301,which replaced the 7320, was part of the original S/360 announcement, with a capacity of 4Mb. The 303.8 kB/second <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_2303&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 2303 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2303</a><sup id="cite_ref-GA26-5988_13-1" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><span style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_System/360#cite_note-GA26-5988-13" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">[</a> </span></sup><sup class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; white-space: nowrap; ">74-76</sup> was announced on January 31, 1966, with a capacity of 3.913 MB. These were the only drums announced for the S/360 and S/370, and their niche was later filled by fixed-head disks.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The 6,000 RPM 2305 appeared in 1970, with capacities of 5 Mb (2305-1) or 11 Mb (2305-2) per module.Although these devices did not have large capacity, their speed and transfer rates made them attractive for high-performance needs. A typical use was overlay linkage (e.g. for OS and application subroutines) for program sections written to alternate in the same memory regions. Fixed head disks and drums were particularly effective as paging devices on the early virtual memory systems. The 2305, although often called a "drum" was actually a head-per-track disk device, with 12 recording surfaces and a data transfer rate up to 3 megabytes per second.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Rarely seen was the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_2321_Data_Cell" title="IBM 2321 Data Cell" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2321 Data Cell</a>, a bizarre (and mechanically dramatic) device that contained multiple magnetic strips to hold data; strips could be randomly accessed, placed upon a cylinder-shaped drum for read/write operations; then returned to an internal storage cartridge. The IBM Data Cell [noodle picker] was among several IBM trademarked "speedy" mass online direct-access storage peripherals (reincarnated in recent years as "virtual tape" and automated tape librarian peripherals). The 2321 file had a capacity of 400 MB, at the time when the 2311 disk drive only had 7.2 MB. The IBM Data Cell was proposed to fill cost/capacity/speed gap between magnetic tapes—which had high capacity with relatively low cost per stored byte—and disks, which had higher expense per byte. Some installations also found the electromechanical operation less dependable and opted for less mechanical forms of direct-access storage.</p></span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6575490034019035309.post-86431224384029419872011-08-24T02:17:00.000-07:002011-08-24T02:18:07.947-07:00IBM Component names<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); "><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">BM created a new naming system for the new components created for System/360, although well-known old names, like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_1403" title="IBM 1403" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 1403</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_1050" title="IBM 1050" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 1052</a>, were retained. In this new naming system, components were given four-digit numbers starting with 2. The second digit described the type of component, as follows:</p><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAUAAAANCAYAAABhPKSIAAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAACtJREFUeF7NjbEJAAAIw7zRu/w5ouBUBEeHDM2QGiA8kObBULuFcJbSXN8T78SqnpKltAIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=); "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">20xx: arithmetic processors, for example the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_2030" title="IBM 2030" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2030</a>, which was the CPU for the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_System/360_Model_30" title="IBM System/360 Model 30" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM System/360 Model 30</a>;</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">21xx: power supplies and other equipment intimately associated with processors, for example the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_2167_Configuration_Unit&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 2167 Configuration Unit (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2167 Configuration Unit</a>;</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">22xx: visual output devices, for example the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_2250" title="IBM 2250" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2250</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_2260" title="IBM 2260" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2260</a> CRT displays, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_2203&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 2203 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2203</a> line printer for the System/360 model 20;</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">23xx: direct-access and random-access storage devices, for example the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_2311" title="IBM 2311" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2311</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_2314" title="IBM 2314" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2314</a> disk drives, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_2321_Data_Cell" title="IBM 2321 Data Cell" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2321 Data Cell</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_2361_Large_Capacity_Storage" title="IBM 2361 Large Capacity Storage" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2361 Large Capacity Storage</a> (Core Storage, Large Core Storage or LCS) and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_2365_Processor_Storage" title="IBM 2365 Processor Storage" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2365 Processor Storage</a>.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">24xx: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_tape_drive" title="Magnetic tape drive" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">magnetic tape drives</a>, for example the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_2401&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 2401 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2401</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_2405&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 2405 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2405</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_2415&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 2415 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2415</a>;</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">25xx: punched card handling equipment, for example the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_2501&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 2501 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2501</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punched_card" title="Punched card" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">card reader</a>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_2520&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 2520 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2520</a> (card punch); <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_2540" title="IBM 2540" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2540</a> (reader/punch) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_2560&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 2560 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2560</a> (Multi-Function Card Machine or MFCM);</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">26xx: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper_tape" title="Paper tape" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">paper tape</a> handling equipment, for example the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_2671&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 2671 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2671</a> paper tape reader;</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">27xx: communications equipment, for example the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_2701&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 2701 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2701</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_2705&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 2705 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2705</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_2741" title="IBM 2741" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2741</a> interactive terminal and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_2780" title="IBM 2780" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2780</a> batch terminal;</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">28xx: channels and controllers, for example the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_2821_Control_Unit" title="IBM 2821 Control Unit" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2821 Control Unit</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_2841&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 2841 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2841</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_2844&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 2844 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2844</a>; and</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">29xx: miscellaneous devices, for example the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_2914_Data_Channel_Switch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 2914 Data Channel Switch (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2914 Data Channel Switch</a> and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_2944_Data_Channel_Repeater&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 2944 Data Channel Repeater (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 2944 Data Channel Repeater</a>.</li></ul><h2 style="color: black; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); width: auto; font-size: 19px; "><span class="mw-headline" id="Peripherals">
<br />Peripherals</span></h2><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">IBM developed a new family of peripheral equipment for the S/360, carrying over a few from its older 1400 series. Interfaces were standardized, allowing greater flexibility to mix and match processors, controllers and peripherals than in the earlier product lines.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">In addition, the S/360 computers could use certain peripherals that were originally developed for earlier computers. These earlier peripherals used a different numbering system, such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_1403" title="IBM 1403" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 1403</a>chain printer. The 1403, an extremely reliable device which had already earned a reputation as a workhorse, was sold as the 1403-N1 when adapted for the System/360.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Also available were <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_character_recognition" title="Optical character recognition" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">optical character recognition</a> (OCR) readers 1287 and 1288.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Most small systems were sold with an IBM 1052-7 as the console typewriter. This was tightly integrated into the CPU — the keyboard would physically lock under program control. Certain high-end machines could optionally be purchased with a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_2250" title="IBM 2250" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">2250</a> graphical display, costing upwards of US $100,000. The 360/85 used a 5450 display console that was not compatible with anything else in the line; the later 3066 console for the 370/165 and 370/168 used the same basic display design as the 360/85.</p></span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6575490034019035309.post-33618866696411111112011-08-24T02:15:00.000-07:002011-08-24T02:17:09.460-07:00IBM Channels<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); "><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Peripherals interfaced to the system via <i>channels</i>. A channel was a specialized processor with the instruction set optimized for transferring data between a peripheral and main memory. In modern terms, this could be compared to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_memory_access" title="Direct memory access" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">direct memory access</a> (DMA).</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">There were initially two types of channels; byte-multiplexer channels, for connecting "slow speed" devices such as card readers and punches, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_printer" title="Line printer" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">line printers</a>, and communications controllers, and selector channels for connecting high speed devices, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_drive" title="Disk drive" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">disk drives</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tape_drive" title="Tape drive" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">tape drives</a>, data cells and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drum_memory" title="Drum memory" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">drums</a>. Every S/360 (except for the Model 20, which was not a standard S/360) had a byte-multiplexer channel and 1 or more selector channels. The smaller models (up to the model 50) had integrated channels, while for the larger models (model 65 and above) the channels were large separate units in separate cabinets, such as the IBM 2860 and 2870.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The byte-multiplexer channel was able to handle I/O to/from several devices simultaneously at the device's highest rated speeds, hence the name, as it <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplexing" title="Multiplexing" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">multiplexed</a> I/O from those devices onto a single data path to main memory. Devices connected to a byte-multiplexer channel were configured to operate in 1-byte, 2-byte, 4-byte, or "burst" mode. The larger "blocks" of data were used to handle progressively faster devices. For example, a 2501 card reader operating at 600 cards per minute would be in 1-byte mode, while a 1403-N1 printer would be in burst mode. Also, the byte-multiplexer channel had an optional sub-selector section that would accommodate tape drives. The byte-multiplexor's channel address was typically "0" and the sub-selector addresses were from "C0" to "FF." Thus, tape drives on S/360 were commonly addressed at 0C0-0C7. Other common byte-multiplexer addresses were: 00A: 2501 Card Reader, 00C/00D: 2540 Reader/Punch, 00E/00F: 1403-N1 Printers, 010-013: 3211 Printers, 020-0BF: 2701/2703 Telecommunications Units. These addresses are still commonly used in z/VM virtual machines.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The S/360 models 30, 40, and 50 had an integrated 1052-7 console that was usually addressed as 01F, however, this was not connected to the byte-multiplexer channel, but rather, had a direct internal connection to the mainframe.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Selector channels enabled I/O to high speed devices. These storage devices were attached to a control unit and then to the channel. The control unit enabled clusters of devices to be attached to the channels. On higher speed S/360 models, multiple selector channels, which could operate simultaneously or in parallel, improved overall performance.</p><div class="thumb tright" style="margin-bottom: 1.3em; width: auto; background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-left: 1.4em; "><div class="thumbinner" style="min-width: 100px; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; background-color: rgb(249, 249, 249); font-size: 12px; text-align: center; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; width: 202px; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ChannelConnector.JPG" class="image" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/ChannelConnector.JPG/200px-ChannelConnector.JPG" width="200" height="121" class="thumbimage" style="border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); " /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align: left; border-top-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-bottom-style: none; border-left-style: none; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; line-height: 1.4em; padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; font-size: 11px; "><div class="magnify" style="float: right; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ChannelConnector.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; display: block; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><img src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" style="border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; display: block; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; " /></a></div>Bus & tag cable</div></div></div><div class="thumb tright" style="margin-bottom: 1.3em; width: auto; background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-left: 1.4em; "><div class="thumbinner" style="min-width: 100px; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; background-color: rgb(249, 249, 249); font-size: 12px; text-align: center; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; width: 202px; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ChannelTerminator.JPG" class="image" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/ChannelTerminator.JPG/200px-ChannelTerminator.JPG" width="200" height="116" class="thumbimage" style="border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); " /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align: left; border-top-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-bottom-style: none; border-left-style: none; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; line-height: 1.4em; padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; font-size: 11px; "><div class="magnify" style="float: right; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ChannelTerminator.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; display: block; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><img src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" style="border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; display: block; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; " /></a></div>Bus & tag terminators</div></div></div><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Control units were connected to the channels with gray "bus and tag" cable pairs. The bus cables carried the address and data information and the tag cables identified what data was on the bus. The general configuration of a channel was to connect the devices in a chain, like this: Mainframe—Control Unit X—Control Unit Y—Control Unit Z. Each control unit was assigned a "capture range" of addresses that it serviced. For example, control unit X might capture addresses 40-4F, control unit Y: C0-DF, and control unit Z: 80-9F. The capture ranges had to be a multiple of 8, 16, 32, 64, or 128 devices and be aligned on appropriate boundaries. Each control unit in turn had one or more devices attached to it. For example, you could have control unit Y with 6 disks, that would be addressed as C0-C5.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The cable ordering of the control units on the channel was also significant. Each control unit was "strapped" as High or Low priority. When a device selection was sent out on a mainframe's channel, the selection was sent from X->Y->Z->Y->X. If the control unit was "high" then the selection was checked in the outbound direction, if "low" then the inbound direction. Thus, control unit X was either 1st or 5th, Y was either 2nd or 4th, and Z was 3rd in line. It was also possible to have multiple channels attached to a control unit from the same or multiple mainframes, thus providing a rich high-performance, multiple-access, and backup capability.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Typically the total cable length of a channel was limited to 200 feet, less being preferred. Each control unit accounted for about 10 "feet" of the 200-foot limit.</p><h4 style="color: black; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; width: auto; font-size: 15px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span class="mw-headline" id="Block_multiplexer_channel">
<br />Block multiplexer channel</span></h4><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">IBM introduced a new type of I/O channel on the 360/85 and 360/195: the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_2880&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 2880 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">2880</a> block multiplexer channel. The channel allowed a device to suspend a channel program, pending the completion of an I/O operation and thus to free the channel for use by another device. The initial use for this was the 2305 fixed-head disk, which had 8 "exposures" (alias addresses) and rotational position sensing (RPS).</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">These channels could support either standard 1.5 MB/second connections or, with the 2-byte interface feature, 3 MB/second; the later used one tag cable and two bus cables.</p><h3 style="color: black; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; width: auto; font-size: 17px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span class="mw-headline" id="Basic_hardware_components">
<br />Basic hardware components</span></h3><div class="thumb tright" style="margin-bottom: 1.3em; width: auto; background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-left: 1.4em; "><div class="thumbinner" style="min-width: 100px; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; background-color: rgb(249, 249, 249); font-size: 12px; text-align: center; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; width: 202px; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SLT_Card_Frame.corestore.jpg" class="image" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/SLT_Card_Frame.corestore.jpg/200px-SLT_Card_Frame.corestore.jpg" width="200" height="300" class="thumbimage" style="border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); " /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align: left; border-top-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-bottom-style: none; border-left-style: none; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; line-height: 1.4em; padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; font-size: 11px; "><div class="magnify" style="float: right; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SLT_Card_Frame.corestore.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; display: block; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><img src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" style="border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; display: block; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; " /></a></div><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_Logic_Technology" title="Solid Logic Technology" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">SLT</a> card frame. Image from <a href="http://www.corestore.org/" class="external text" rel="nofollow" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(51, 102, 187); background-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAoAAAAKCAYAAACNMs+9AAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAAFZJREFUeF59z4EJADEIQ1F36k7u5E7ZKXeUQPACJ3wK7UNokVxVk9kHnQH7bY9hbDyDhNXgjpRLqFlo4M2GgfyJHhjq8V4agfrgPQX3JtJQGbofmCHgA/nAKks+JAjFAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC); background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; padding-right: 13px; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; ">The Corestore</a>.</div></div></div><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Being somewhat uncertain of the reliability and availability of the then new monolithic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">integrated circuits</a>, IBM chose instead to design custom hybrid integrated circuits using discrete <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flip_chip" title="Flip chip" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">flip chip</a> mounted <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass" title="Glass" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">glass</a> encapsulated <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">transistors</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode" title="Diode" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">diodes</a> with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen-printing" title="Screen-printing" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">silk screened</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistor" title="Resistor" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">resistors</a> on a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic" title="Ceramic" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">ceramic</a> substrate, then either encapsulated in plastic or covered with a metal lid. Several of these were then mounted on a small multi-layer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit" title="Printed circuit" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">printed circuit</a> board to make a "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_Logic_Technology" title="Solid Logic Technology" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Solid Logic Technology</a>" (SLT) module. Each SLT module had a socket on one edge that plugged into pins on the computer's backplane (the reverse of how most other company's modules were mounted).</p></span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6575490034019035309.post-46237250322609053222011-08-24T02:13:00.000-07:002011-08-24T02:15:28.822-07:00IBM Technical description<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); "><h3 style="color: black; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; width: auto; font-size: 17px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span class="mw-headline" id="Influential_features">Influential features</span></h3><div class="thumb tright" style="margin-bottom: 1.3em; width: auto; background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-left: 1.4em; "><div class="thumbinner" style="min-width: 100px; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; background-color: rgb(249, 249, 249); font-size: 12px; text-align: center; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; width: 222px; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IBM_360_20_TROS.jpg" class="image" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/64/IBM_360_20_TROS.jpg/220px-IBM_360_20_TROS.jpg" width="220" height="159" class="thumbimage" style="border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); " /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align: left; border-top-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-bottom-style: none; border-left-style: none; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; line-height: 1.4em; padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; font-size: 11px; "><div class="magnify" style="float: right; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IBM_360_20_TROS.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; display: block; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><img src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" style="border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; display: block; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; " /></a></div>IBM System 360-20 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcode" title="Microcode" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Microcode</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer_Read_Only_Storage" title="Transformer Read Only Storage" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">TROS</a></div></div></div><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The System/360 introduced a number of industry standards to the marketplace, such as:</p><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAUAAAANCAYAAABhPKSIAAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAACtJREFUeF7NjbEJAAAIw7zRu/w5ouBUBEeHDM2QGiA8kObBULuFcJbSXN8T78SqnpKltAIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=); "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8-bit" title="8-bit" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">8-bit</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte" title="Byte" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">byte</a> (against financial pressure during development to reduce the byte to 4 or 6 bits), rather than adopting the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_7030" title="IBM 7030" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">7030</a> concept of accessing bytes of variable size at arbitrary bit addresses.</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Byte-<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_address" title="Memory address" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">addressable</a> memory (as opposed to bit-addressable or word-addressable memory)</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/32-bit" title="32-bit" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">32-bit</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer_(computer_science)#Words" title="Integer (computer science)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">words</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">The bus and tag I/O channel standardized in FIPS-60<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_System/360#cite_note-7" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Commercial use of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcode" title="Microcode" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">microcoded</a> CPUs</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Floating_Point_Architecture" title="IBM Floating Point Architecture" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM Floating Point Architecture</a> (until superseded by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754" title="IEEE 754" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IEEE 754-1985</a> floating-point standard, 20 years later)</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EBCDIC" title="EBCDIC" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">EBCDIC</a> character set<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_System/360#cite_note-8" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>NB 2<span>]</span></a></sup></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9_track_tape" title="9 track tape" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Nine track magnetic tape</a></li></ul></span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6575490034019035309.post-90523180170905643622011-08-24T02:11:00.000-07:002011-08-24T02:13:11.790-07:00IBM Models<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); "><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">IBM initially announced a series of six computers and forty common peripherals. IBM eventually delivered fourteen models, including rare one-off models for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA" title="NASA" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">NASA</a>. The cheapest model was the S/360-20 with as little as 4 K of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_memory" title="Core memory" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">core memory</a>, eight 16-bit registers instead of the sixteen 32-bit registers of real 360s, and an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruction_set" title="Instruction set" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">instruction set</a> that was a subset of that used by the rest of the range. (The Model 20 was suited for smaller businesses — yet it had the IBM name and salesforce.)</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The initial announcement in 1964 included Models <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_System/360_Model_30" title="IBM System/360 Model 30" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">30</a>, 40, 50, 60, 62, and 70. The first three were low- to middle-range systems aimed at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_1400_series" title="IBM 1400 series" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 1400 series</a> market. All three were sold first during mid-1965. The last three, intended to replace the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_700/7000_series" title="IBM 700/7000 series" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">7000 series</a> machines, were never sold and were replaced by the 65 and 75, which was first delivered during November 1965, and January 1966, respectively.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Later additions to cheaper models included the 20 (1966, mentioned above), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_System/360_Model_22" title="IBM System/360 Model 22" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">22</a> (1971), and 25 (1968). The Model 22 was a recycled Model 30 with minor limitations: a smaller maximum memory configuration, and slower I/O channels which limited it to slower and lower-capacity disk and tape devices than on the 30.</p><div class="thumb tleft" style="margin-bottom: 1.3em; width: auto; background-color: transparent; float: left; clear: left; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-right: 1.4em; margin-left: 0px; "><div class="thumbinner" style="min-width: 100px; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; background-color: rgb(249, 249, 249); font-size: 12px; text-align: center; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; width: 222px; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DM_IBM_S360.jpg" class="image" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/DM_IBM_S360.jpg/220px-DM_IBM_S360.jpg" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" style="border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); " /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align: left; border-top-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-bottom-style: none; border-left-style: none; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; line-height: 1.4em; padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; font-size: 11px; "><div class="magnify" style="float: right; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DM_IBM_S360.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; display: block; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><img src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" style="border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; display: block; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; " /></a></div>An IBM System/360-20 (front panels removed), with IBM 2560 MFCM (Multi-Function Card Machine)</div></div></div><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The Model 44 (1966) was a variant aimed at the mid-range scientific market with hardware floating point but an otherwise limited instruction set.</p><div class="thumb tright" style="margin-bottom: 1.3em; width: auto; background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-left: 1.4em; "><div class="thumbinner" style="min-width: 100px; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; background-color: rgb(249, 249, 249); font-size: 12px; text-align: center; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; width: 222px; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:360-91-panel.jpg" class="image" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/360-91-panel.jpg/220px-360-91-panel.jpg" width="220" height="149" class="thumbimage" style="border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); " /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align: left; border-top-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-bottom-style: none; border-left-style: none; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; line-height: 1.4em; padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; font-size: 11px; "><div class="magnify" style="float: right; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:360-91-panel.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; display: block; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><img src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" style="border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; display: block; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; " /></a></div>This image of the System/360 Model 91 was taken by NASA sometime in the late 60s.</div></div></div><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">A succession of high-end machines included the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_System/360-67" title="IBM System/360-67" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">67</a> (1966, mentioned below, briefly anticipated as the 64 and 66), 85 (1969), 91 (1967, anticipated as the 92), 95 (1968), and 195 (1971). The 85 design was intermediate between the System/360 line and the follow-on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System/370" title="System/370" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">System/370</a> and was the basis for the 370/165. There was a System/370 version of the 195, but it did not include Dynamic Address Translation.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The implementations differed substantially, using different native data path widths, presence or absence of microcode, yet were extremely compatible. Except where specifically documented, the models were architecturally compatible. The 91, for example, was designed for scientific computing and provided <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out-of-order_execution" title="Out-of-order execution" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">out-of-order instruction execution</a> (and could yield "imprecise interrupts" if a program trap occurred while several instructions were being read), but lacked the decimal instruction set used in commercial applications. New features could be added without violating architectural definitions: the 65 had a dual-processor version (M65MP) with extensions for inter-CPU signalling; the 85 introduced cache memory. Models 44, 75, 91, 95, and 195 were implemented with hardwired logic, rather than microcoded as all other models.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_System/360-67" title="IBM System/360-67" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">S/360-67</a>, announced in August 1965, was the first production IBM system to offer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_address_translation" title="Dynamic address translation" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">dynamic address translation</a> hardware to support <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-sharing" title="Time-sharing" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">time-sharing</a>. "DAT" is now more commonly referred to as an<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_management_unit" title="Memory management unit" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">MMU</a>. An experimental one-off unit was built based on a model 40. Before the 67, IBM had announced models 64 and 66, DAT versions of the 60 and 62, but they were almost immediately replaced by the 67 at the same time that the 60 and 62 were replaced by the 65. DAT hardware would reappear in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/370" title="S/370" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">S/370</a> series in 1972, though it was initially absent from the series. Like the 65 to which it was closely related, the 67 also had a dual-CPU implementation.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">All System/360 models were withdrawn from marketing by the end of 1977.</p><h3 style="color: black; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; width: auto; font-size: 17px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span class="mw-headline" id="Backward_compatibility">
<br />Backward compatibility</span></h3><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">IBM's existing customers had a large investment in software that executed on second generation machines. Many models offered the option of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulator" title="Emulator" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">emulation</a> of the customer's previous computer (e.g. the<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_1400_series" title="IBM 1400 series" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 1400 series</a> on a 360-30 or the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_7094" title="IBM 7094" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 7094</a> on a 360-65) using a combination of special hardware, special <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcode" title="Microcode" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">microcode</a> and an emulation program that used the emulation instructions to simulate the target system, so that old programs could run on the new machine. However, customers had to halt the computer and load the emulation program. The 360/85 and later System/370 retained the emulation options, but allowed them to be executed under operating system control alongside native programs.</p><h3 style="color: black; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; width: auto; font-size: 17px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span class="mw-headline" id="Successors_and_variants">
<br />Successors and variants</span></h3><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The S/360 (excepting the 360/20) was replaced by the compatible <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System/370" title="System/370" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">System/370</a> range in 1970 and 360/20 users were targeted to move to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_System/3" title="IBM System/3" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM System/3</a>. (The idea of a major breakthrough with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FS_technology" title="FS technology" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">FS technology</a> was dropped in the mid-1970s for cost-effectiveness and continuity reasons.) Later compatible IBM systems include the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_3090&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IBM 3090 (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">3090</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_ES/9000_family" title="IBM ES/9000 family" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">ES/9000</a> family, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_9672" title="IBM 9672" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">9672</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System/390" title="System/390" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">System/390</a> family), the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZSeries" title="ZSeries" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">zSeries</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_z9" title="System z9" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">System z9</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_z10" title="System z10" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">System z10</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_zEnterprise_System" title="IBM zEnterprise System" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM zEnterprise System</a>.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Computers that were mostly<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_System/360#cite_note-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>NB 1<span>]</span></a></sup> identical or compatible in terms of the machine code or architecture of the System/360 included <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amdahl_Corporation" title="Amdahl Corporation" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Amdahl</a>'s 470 family (and its successors), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitachi,_Ltd." title="Hitachi, Ltd." class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Hitachi</a> mainframes, the<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNIVAC" title="UNIVAC" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">UNIVAC</a> 9200/9300/9400 series, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Electric" title="English Electric" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">English Electric</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Electric_System_4" title="English Electric System 4" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">System 4</a>, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RCA" title="RCA" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">RCA</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectra_70" title="Spectra 70" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Spectra 70</a> series, which was sold to what was then <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNIVAC" title="UNIVAC" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">UNIVAC</a> to become the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNIVAC_90/60" title="UNIVAC 90/60" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">UNIVAC 90/60</a> and later releases. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Soviet Union</a> produced an S/360 clone named the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ES_EVM" title="ES EVM" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">ES EVM</a>.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_5100" title="IBM 5100" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 5100</a> portable computer, introduced in 1975, offered an option to execute the System/360's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APL_programming_language" title="APL programming language" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">APL.SV programming language</a> through a hardware emulator. IBM used this approach in order to avoid the costs and delay in creating a version of APL specific to the 5100.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Special <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation_hardened" title="Radiation hardened" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">radiation-hardened</a> and otherwise somewhat modified S/360s, in the form of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System/4_Pi" title="System/4 Pi" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">System/4 Pi</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avionics" title="Avionics" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">avionics</a> computer, are used in several fighter and bomber jet aircraft. In the complete 32-bit AP-101 version, 4 Pi machines are used as the replicated computing nodes of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fault-tolerance" title="Fault-tolerance" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">fault-tolerant</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Space Shuttle</a> computer system (in five nodes). The U.S. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration" title="Federal Aviation Administration" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Federal Aviation Administration</a> operated the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_9020" title="IBM 9020" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM 9020</a>, a special cluster of modified System/360s for air traffic control, from 1970 until the 1990s. (Some 9020 software is apparently still used via <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulator" title="Emulator" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">emulation</a> on newer hardware.)</p></span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6575490034019035309.post-33092537523168606822011-08-24T02:08:00.000-07:002011-08-24T02:10:55.382-07:00IBM System<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); "><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The <b>IBM System/360</b> (<b>S/360</b>) was a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">mainframe computer</a> system family first announced by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM" title="IBM" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM</a> on April 7, 1964, and sold between 1964 and 1978. It was the first family of computers designed to cover the complete range of applications, from small to large, both commercial and scientific. The design made a clear distinction between <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">architecture</a> and implementation, allowing IBM to release a suite of compatible designs at different prices. All but the most expensive systems used <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcode" title="Microcode" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">microcode</a> to implement the instruction set, which featured 8-bit byte addressing and binary, decimal and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating-point_arithmetic" title="Floating-point arithmetic" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">floating-point</a>calculations.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The slowest System/360 models announced in 1964 ranged in speed from 0.0018 to 0.034 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Million_instructions_per_second" title="Million instructions per second" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">MIPS</a> the fastest System/360 models were approximately 50 times as fast with 8 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilobyte" title="Kilobyte" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">kB</a> and up to 8 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megabyte" title="Megabyte" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">MB</a> of internal <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_memory" title="Main memory" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">main memory</a>, though the latter was unusual, and up to 8 megabytes of slower <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_2361_Large_Capacity_Storage" title="IBM 2361 Large Capacity Storage" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Large Core Storage (LCS)</a>. A large system might have 256 kB of main storage.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The 360s were extremely successful in the market, allowing customers to purchase a smaller system with the knowledge they would always be able to migrate upward if their needs grew, without reprogramming of application software. The design is considered by many to be one of the most successful computers in history, influencing computer design for years to come.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The chief architect of the S/360 was <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_Amdahl" title="Gene Amdahl" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Gene Amdahl</a>, and the project was managed by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Brooks" title="Fred Brooks" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Fred Brooks</a>, responsible to Chairman <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_J._Watson_Jr." title="Thomas J. Watson Jr." class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Thomas J. Watson Jr.</a></p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Application level compatibility (with some restrictions) for System/360 software is maintained until present day with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_System_z" title="IBM System z" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM zSeries</a> computers.</p></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); "><h2 style="color: black; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); width: auto; font-size: 19px; "><span class="mw-headline" id="System.2F360_history">System/360 history</span></h2><div class="thumb tleft" style="margin-bottom: 1.3em; width: auto; background-color: transparent; float: left; clear: left; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-right: 1.4em; margin-left: 0px; "><div class="thumbinner" style="min-width: 100px; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; background-color: rgb(249, 249, 249); font-size: 12px; text-align: center; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; width: 222px; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F038812-0014,_Wolfsburg,_VW_Autowerk.jpg" class="image" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F038812-0014%2C_Wolfsburg%2C_VW_Autowerk.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F038812-0014%2C_Wolfsburg%2C_VW_Autowerk.jpg" width="220" height="139" class="thumbimage" style="border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); " /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align: left; border-top-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-bottom-style: none; border-left-style: none; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; line-height: 1.4em; padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; font-size: 11px; "><div class="magnify" style="float: right; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F038812-0014,_Wolfsburg,_VW_Autowerk.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; display: block; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><img src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" style="border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; display: block; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; " /></a></div>An IBM System/360 in use at Volkswagen.</div></div></div><h3 style="color: black; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; width: auto; font-size: 17px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span class="mw-headline" id="A_family_of_computers">
<br />A family of computers</span></h3><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Contrasting with at-the-time normal industry practice, IBM created an entire series of computers (or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">CPUs</a>) from small to large, low to high performance, all using the same instruction set (with two exceptions for specific markets). This feat allowed customers to use a cheaper model and then upgrade to larger systems as their needs increased without the time and expense of rewriting software. IBM was the first manufacturer to exploit <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcode" title="Microcode" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">microcode</a> technology to implement a compatible range of computers of widely differing performance, although the largest, fastest, models had hard-wired logic instead.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">This flexibility greatly lowered barriers to entry. With other vendors (with the notable exception of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Computers_and_Tabulators" title="International Computers and Tabulators" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">ICT</a>), customers had to choose between machines they could outgrow and machines that were potentially overpowered (and thus too expensive). This meant that many companies simply did not buy computers.</p></span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6575490034019035309.post-8808972805283699912011-08-24T02:04:00.000-07:002011-08-24T02:05:34.248-07:00IBM Research<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); "><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; "><b>IBM Research</b>, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_(business)" title="Division (business)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">division</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM" title="IBM" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM</a>, is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">research and advanced development</a> organization and currently consists of eight locations throughout the world and hundreds of projects.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Its origins can be traced to the establishment in 1945 of the Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Columbia University</a> <sup id="cite_ref-0" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Research#cite_note-0" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> which later expanded into other research labs in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westchester_County,_New_York" title="Westchester County, New York" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Westchester County, New York</a> beginning in the 1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Research#cite_note-1" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Research#cite_note-2" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup></p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Some major activities include the invention of innovative materials and structures, high-performance microprocessors and computers, analytical methods and tools, algorithms, software architectures, and methods for managing, searching and deriving meaning from data.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Among their most famous past developments are the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Encryption_Standard" title="Data Encryption Standard" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Data Encryption Standard</a> (DES), the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_Fourier_transform" title="Fast Fourier transform" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">fast Fourier transform</a> (FFT), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beno%C3%AEt_Mandelbrot" title="Benoît Mandelbrot" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Benoît B. Mandelbrot's</a> paper introducing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractal" title="Fractal" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">fractals</a>, Magnetic disk storage (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk" title="Hard disk" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">hard disks</a>), <i>One-transistor dynamic RAM (DRAM)</i> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_random_access_memory" title="Dynamic random access memory" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Dynamic random access memory</a>), <i>Reduced Instruction Set Computer</i> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RISC" title="RISC" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">RISC</a>) architecture, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relational_database" title="Relational database" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Relational databases</a>, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grandmaster_(chess)" title="Grandmaster (chess)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">grandmaster</a> level <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess" title="Chess" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">chess</a>computer, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Deep_Blue" title="IBM Deep Blue" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Deep Blue</a>. IBM Research's several contributions to physical sciences include the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_microscope" title="Scanning tunneling microscope" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">scanning tunneling microscope</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_temperature_superconductivity" title="High temperature superconductivity" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">high temperature superconductivity</a>. Both these achievements were rewarded with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Nobel Prizes</a>.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">IBM Research is involved in many significant collaborative research activities with different academic universities and industrial research laboratories. These include the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Technology_Alliance" title="International Technology Alliance" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">International Technology Alliance</a>, the Open Collaborative Research program and the research alliance that developed the DARPA High Performance Computing System.</p></span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6575490034019035309.post-90136414209687190272011-08-24T02:03:00.000-07:002011-08-24T02:04:28.900-07:00IBM Cambridge Scientific Center<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); "><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The IBM <b>Cambridge Scientific Center</b>, established in February 1964 by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Norm_Rasmussen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Norm Rasmussen (page does not exist)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(186, 0, 0); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Norm Rasmussen</a>, was situated at 545 Technology Square (<i>Tech Square</i>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Cambridge, Massachusetts</a> in the same building as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">MIT</a>'s <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_MAC" title="Project MAC" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Project MAC</a>. It was later renamed the <b>IBM Scientific Center</b>.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The center is most notable for creating <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CP-40" title="CP-40" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">CP-40</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CP/CMS" title="CP/CMS" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">CP/CMS</a>.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The IBM Data Processing Division (DPD) sponsored five Scientific Center research groups in the United States and some others around the world to work with selected universities on a variety of customer-related projects.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Research" title="IBM Research" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM Research</a> Division in Yorktown Heights, NY was a separate laboratory organization that tended more to "pure" research topics. The DPD Scientific Centers in the late 1960s were located in Palo Alto, California, Houston, Texas, Washington, D.C., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and Grenoble, France. The IBM Time-Life Programming Center in Manhattan, New York worked with the scientific centers but had a slightly different reporting line.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The Cambridge Scientific Center worked with computing groups at both MIT and Harvard, in the same building as Project MAC and the IBM Boston Programming Center (BPC). Additional joint projects involved the MIT Lincoln Laboratory on the outskirts of Boston and Brown University in Providence, RI.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The scientific center in 1969 had three main departments: Computer Graphics under Craig Johnson, Operations Research under John Harmon, and Operating Systems under Richard (Rip) Parmelee. The center manager was Norman Rasmussen.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">IBM closed the center on July 31, 1992</p></span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6575490034019035309.post-73777148866716981752011-08-24T02:02:00.000-07:002011-08-24T02:03:06.740-07:00IBM Global Business Services<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); "><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; "><b>IBM Global Business Services</b> (GBS) is the professional services arm of Global Services, including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_consulting" title="Management consulting" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">management consulting</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_integration" title="Systems integration" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">systems integration</a>, and application management services. It is the world's largest IT consultancy Services.GBS is also the highest revenue earning division of IBM.</p><h3 style="color: black; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; width: auto; font-size: 17px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span></h3><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The beginning of IBM’s involvement in IT services can be traced back at least to 1989 when Eastman Kodak Company and IBM completed an agreement by which IBM designed, built and managed a new state-of-the-art data center for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodak" title="Kodak" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Kodak</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rochester,_New_York" title="Rochester, New York" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Rochester</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York" title="New York" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">New York</a>.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Also in 1989, IBM introduced Business Recovery Services, an offering that enables a business to continue operations in the event of an unplanned outage or disaster.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">In 2002, IBM Global Services acquired the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_consulting" title="Management consulting" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">management consulting</a> and technology services arm of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PricewaterhouseCoopers" title="PricewaterhouseCoopers" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">PricewaterhouseCoopers</a>, around the same time the other <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Four_auditors" title="Big Four auditors" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Big Four</a> accounting firms were selling off their consulting arms (this was from intense pressure to avoid conflicts of interest in light of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarbanes-Oxley_Act" title="Sarbanes-Oxley Act" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Sarbanes-Oxley Act</a>). PwC's consultancy business was sold to IBM for approximately <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">US$</a>3.9 billion in cash and stock. This nearly doubled the number of consultants within IBM Global Services, adding 30,000 consultants in 52 countries.</p><h3 style="color: black; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; width: auto; font-size: 17px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span class="mw-headline" id="Organizational_Structure">Organizational Structure</span></h3><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">IBM Global Business Services is organized into six service lines:</p><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-type: square; margin-top: 0.3em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAUAAAANCAYAAABhPKSIAAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAACtJREFUeF7NjbEJAAAIw7zRu/w5ouBUBEeHDM2QGiA8kObBULuFcJbSXN8T78SqnpKltAIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=); "><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Strategy & Transformation</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Enterprise Applications - SAP</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Enterprise Applications - Oracle</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Business Analytics and Optimization</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Application Innovation Services</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em; ">Application Management Services</li></ul></span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6575490034019035309.post-31670525598114522512011-08-23T19:08:00.000-07:002011-08-23T19:10:16.761-07:00IBM Floppy disk<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); "><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">A <b>floppy disk</b> is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_storage" title="Disk storage" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">disk storage</a> medium composed of a disk of thin and flexible <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_storage" title="Magnetic storage" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">magnetic storage</a> medium, sealed in a rectangular plastic carrier lined with fabric that removes dust particles. They are read and written by a floppy disk drive (FDD).</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Invented by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM" title="IBM" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM</a>, floppy disks in 3.5-inch (89 mm), 5.25-inch (133 mm) and 8-inch (200 mm) forms were an ubiquitous form of data storage and exchange from the mid-1970s to the 2000s.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">While floppy disk drives still have some limited uses, especially with legacy industrial computer equipment, they have been superseded by data storage methods with much greater capacity, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB_flash_drive" title="USB flash drive" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">USB flash drives</a>, portable <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/External_hard_disk_drive" title="External hard disk drive" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">external hard disk drives</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_disc" title="Optical disc" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">optical discs</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_card" title="Memory card" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">memory cards</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">computer networks</a>.</p></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); "><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The earliest floppy disks, invented in the late 1960s, were 8 inches (200 mm) in diameter; they became commercially available in 1971. These disks and associated drives were produced and improved upon by IBM and other companies such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memorex" title="Memorex" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Memorex</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shugart_Associates" title="Shugart Associates" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Shugart Associates</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burroughs_Corporation" title="Burroughs Corporation" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Burroughs Corporation</a>.The term "floppy disk" appeared in print as early as 1970,and although in 1973 IBM announced its first media as "Type 1 Diskette" the industry continued to use the terms "floppy disk" or "floppy".</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">In 1976, Shugart Associates introduced the first 5¼-inch FDD. By 1978 there were more than 10 manufacturers producing such FDDs. There were competing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floppy_disk_format" title="Floppy disk format" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">floppy disk formats</a>, with hard and soft sector versions and encoding schemes such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_modulation" title="Frequency modulation" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">FM</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modified_Frequency_Modulation" title="Modified Frequency Modulation" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">MFM</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_code_recording" title="Group code recording" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">GCR</a>. The 5 1/4 inch format displaced the 8-inch one for most applications, and the hard sectored disk format disappeared. In 1984, IBM introduced the 1.2 MB dual sided floppy disk along with its AT model. IBM started using the 720 kB <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_density" title="Double density" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">double density</a> 3.5" microfloppy disk on its <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC_Convertible" title="IBM PC Convertible" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Convertible</a> laptop computer and the 1.44 MB <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_density" title="High density" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">high density</a> version with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Personal_System/2" title="IBM Personal System/2" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">PS/2</a> line in 1986. These disk drives could be added to older PC models. In 1988 IBM introduced a drive for 2.88 MB "DSED" diskettes in its top-of-the-line PS/2 models; it was a commercial failure.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Throughout the early 1980s, limitations of the 5¼-inch format became clear. Originally designed to be more practical than the 8-inch format, it was itself too large; as the quality of recording media grew, data could be stored in a smaller area.<sup class="Template-Fact" title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from March 2009" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap; ">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> A number of solutions were developed, with drives at 2, 2½, 3 and 3½ inches (and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony" title="Sony" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Sony</a>'s 90.0 mm × 94.0 mm disk) offered by various companies.<sup class="Template-Fact" title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from March 2009" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap; ">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> They all shared a number of advantages over the old format, including a rigid case with a sliding <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Write_protection" title="Write protection" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">write protection</a> tab, protecting them from damage; the large market share of the 5¼-inch format made it difficult for these new formats to gain significant market share.<sup class="Template-Fact" title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from March 2009" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap; ">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">citation needed</a></i>]</sup> A variant on the Sony design, introduced in 1982 by a large number of manufacturers, was then rapidly adopted; by 1988 the 3½-inch was outselling the 5¼-inch.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">By the end of the 1980s, the 5¼-inch disks had been superseded by the 3½-inch disks. By the mid-1990s the 5¼-inch drives had virtually disappeared as the 3½-inch disk became the predominant floppy disk. The advantages of the 3½-inch disk were its smaller size and its plastic case which provided better protection from dirt and other environmental risks.</p><h3 style="color: black; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; width: auto; font-size: 17px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span class="mw-headline" id="Ubiquity">
<br />Ubiquity</span></h3><div class="thumb tright" style="margin-bottom: 1.3em; width: auto; background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-left: 1.4em; "><div class="thumbinner" style="min-width: 100px; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; background-color: rgb(249, 249, 249); font-size: 12px; text-align: center; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; width: 222px; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Usb_floppy_drive.jpg" class="image" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Usb_floppy_drive.jpg/220px-Usb_floppy_drive.jpg" width="220" height="154" class="thumbimage" style="border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); " /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align: left; border-top-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-bottom-style: none; border-left-style: none; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; line-height: 1.4em; padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; font-size: 11px; "><div class="magnify" style="float: right; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Usb_floppy_drive.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; display: block; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><img src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" style="border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; display: block; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; " /></a></div>Imation USB floppy drive, model 01946: an external drive that accepts high-density disks</div></div></div><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Floppy disks became ubiquitous in the 1980s and 1990s in their use with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">personal computers</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_computer" title="Home computer" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">home computers</a> to distribute software, transfer data, and create <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backup" title="Backup" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">backups</a>. Before hard disks became affordable, floppy disks were often used to store a computer's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">operating system</a> (OS). Most home computers had a primary OS and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BASIC" title="BASIC" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">BASIC</a> stored as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">ROM</a>, with the option of loading a more advanced <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_operating_system" title="Disk operating system" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">disk operating system</a> from a floppy disk. By the early 1990s, the increasing software size meant large packages like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Windows</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_Photoshop" title="Adobe Photoshop" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Adobe Photoshop</a> required a dozen disks or more. In 1996, there were an estimated five billion floppy disks in use. Then, distribution of larger packages was gradually replaced by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD-ROM" title="CD-ROM" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">CD-ROM</a> and online distribution (for smaller programs). An attempt to continue the floppy disk was the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SuperDisk" title="SuperDisk" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">SuperDisk</a> in the late 1990s, with a capacity of 120 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megabyte" title="Megabyte" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">MB</a><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference" style="line-height: 1em; font-style: normal; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floppy_disk#cite_note-6" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; white-space: nowrap; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup> and backward compatible with standard 3½-inch floppies. External <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB" title="USB" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">USB</a>-based floppy disk drives are available; many modern systems provide firmware support for booting from such a drive.</p><h3 style="color: black; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; width: auto; font-size: 17px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span class="mw-headline" id="Decline">
<br />Decline</span></h3><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Mechanically incompatible higher-density disks were introduced, like the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iomega_Zip_drive" title="Iomega Zip drive" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Iomega Zip disk</a>. Adoption was limited by the competition between proprietary formats and the need to buy expensive drives for computers where the disks would be used. In some cases, failure in market penetration was exacerbated by release of higher-capacity versions of the drive and media not <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backward_compatibility" title="Backward compatibility" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">backward compatible</a> with the original drives, dividing the users between new and old adopters. A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicken_or_the_egg" title="Chicken or the egg" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">chicken or the egg</a> scenario ensued, with consumers wary of making costly investments into unproven and rapidly changing technologies, resulting in none of the technologies being able to prove themselves and stabilize their market presence. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD-R" title="CD-R" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Recordable CDs</a> with even greater capacity, compatible with existing infrastructure of CD-ROM drives, made the new floppy technologies redundant, their reusability diminished by their extremely low cost and countered by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD-RW" title="CD-RW" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">re-writable CDs</a>. Networking, advancements in flash-based devices and widespread adoption of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB" title="USB" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">USB</a> provided another alternative that made optical storage obsolete for some purposes. The rise of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_sharing" title="File sharing" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">file sharing</a> and multi-<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megapixel" title="Megapixel" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">megapixel</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_photography" title="Digital photography" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">digital photography</a> encouraged the use of files larger than most 3½-inch disks could hold. Floppy disks were commonly used as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sneakernet" title="Sneakernet" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">sneakernet</a> carriers for file transfer, but the broad availability of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">LANs</a> and fast <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" title="Internet" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Internet</a> connections provided a simpler and faster method of transferring such files. Other removable storage devices have advantages in both capacity and performance when network connections are unavailable or when networks are inadequate.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">In 1991, Commodore introduced the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_CDTV" title="Commodore CDTV" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">CDTV</a>, with a CD-ROM drive in place of the floppy drive. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kickstart_(Amiga)" title="Kickstart (Amiga)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">kickstart</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AmigaOS" title="AmigaOS" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">AmigaOS</a> was stored in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">ROM</a> as in other Amigas, making CDTV still booting from floppy rather than from CD-ROM, like other Amigas. Apple introduced the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMac" title="IMac" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">iMac</a> in 1998 with a CD-ROM drive but no floppy drive; this made USB-connected floppy drives popular accessories as the iMac came without any writable removable media device. This transition from standard floppies was relatively easy for Apple, since all Macintosh models originally designed to use a CD-ROM drive could boot and install their OS from CD-ROM early on. PC manufacturers were initially reluctant to remove the floppy drive because many <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IT</a> departments appreciated the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sneakernet" title="Sneakernet" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Sneakernet</a> built-in file-transfer mechanism that always worked and required no <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Device_driver" title="Device driver" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">device driver</a> to operate properly. Then, manufacturers and retailers progressively reduced the availability floppy drives and disks; widespread support for USB flash drives and BIOS boot support helped them. In February 2003, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell" title="Dell" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Dell</a> announced floppy drives would no longer be pre-installed on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_Dimension" title="Dell Dimension" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Dell Dimension</a> home computers, although still available as a selectable option and purchasable as an aftermarket <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_Equipment_Manufacturer" title="Original Equipment Manufacturer" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">OEM</a> add-on. On 29 January 2007, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_World_(retailer)" title="PC World (retailer)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">PC World</a> stated that only 2% of the computers they sold contained built-in floppy disk drives; once present stocks were exhausted, no more standard floppies would be sold. In 2009, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard" title="Hewlett-Packard" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Hewlett-Packard</a> stopped supplying standard floppy drives on business desktops.<sup class="Template-Fact" title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from November 2009" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap; ">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">citation needed</a></i>]</sup></p><h3 style="color: black; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; font-weight: bold; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-width: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-color: initial; width: auto; font-size: 17px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><span class="mw-headline" id="Current_use">
<br />Current use</span></h3><div class="thumb tleft" style="margin-bottom: 1.3em; width: auto; background-color: transparent; float: left; clear: left; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-right: 1.4em; margin-left: 0px; "><div class="thumbinner" style="min-width: 100px; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; background-color: rgb(249, 249, 249); font-size: 12px; text-align: center; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; width: 222px; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Floppy_hardware_emulator.jpg" class="image" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Floppy_hardware_emulator.jpg/220px-Floppy_hardware_emulator.jpg" width="220" height="148" class="thumbimage" style="border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); " /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align: left; border-top-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-bottom-style: none; border-left-style: none; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; line-height: 1.4em; padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; font-size: 11px; "><div class="magnify" style="float: right; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Floppy_hardware_emulator.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; display: block; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><img src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" style="border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; display: block; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; " /></a></div>A floppy hardware emulator, same size as a 3½ drive, provides a USB interface to the user.</div></div></div><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Floppy disks are used for emergency boots in aging systems lacking support for other <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boot_disk" title="Boot disk" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">bootable media</a>, and for BIOS updates since most <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS" title="BIOS" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">BIOS</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firmware" title="Firmware" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">firmware</a>programs can still be executed from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bootable_floppy" title="Bootable floppy" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">bootable floppy disks</a>. If BIOS updates fail or become corrupt, floppy drives can be used to perform a recovery. The music and theatre industries still use equipment requiring standard floppy disks (i.e. synthesizers, samplers, drum machines, sequencers, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighting_control_console" title="Lighting control console" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">lighting consoles</a>). Industrial automation equipment such as programmable <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machinery_industry" title="Machinery industry" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">machinery</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_robot" title="Industrial robot" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">industrial robots</a> may not have a USB interface; data and programs are then loaded from disks, damageable in industrial environments. This may not be replaced due to cost or requirement for continuous availability; existing software emulation and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_drive" title="Virtual drive" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">virtualization</a> do not solve this problem because no <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">operating system</a> is present or a customized operating system is used that has no drivers for USB devices. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floppy_disk_hardware_emulator" title="Floppy disk hardware emulator" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Hardware floppy disk emulators</a> can be made to interface <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floppy_disk_controller" title="Floppy disk controller" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">floppy disk controllers</a> to a USB port that for flash drives; several manufacturers make such emulators.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">For more than two decades, the floppy disk was the primary external writable storage device used. Most computing environments before the 1990s were non-networked and floppy disks were the primary means of transferring data between computers. Unlike hard disks, floppy disks are handled and seen; even a novice user can identify a floppy disk. Because of these factors, the image of the floppy disk has become a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interface_metaphor" title="Interface metaphor" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">metaphor</a> for saving data. The floppy disk symbol is still used by software on user interface elements related to saving files, such as the release of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Office_2010" title="Microsoft Office 2010" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Microsoft Office 2010</a>, even though such disks are increasingly obsolete.</p></span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6575490034019035309.post-26636803819345031092011-08-23T19:07:00.001-07:002011-08-23T19:07:57.781-07:00IBM Automated teller machine<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); "><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">An <b>automated teller machine</b> (<b>ATM</b>), also known as a <b>Cash Point</b> (which is a trademark of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lloyds_TSB" title="Lloyds TSB" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Lloyds TSB</a>), <b>Cash Machine</b> or sometimes a <b>Hole in the Wall</b> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_English" title="British English" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">British English</a>, is a computerised telecommunications device that provides the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer" title="Customer" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">clients</a> of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_institution" title="Financial institution" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">financial institution</a> with access to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_transaction" title="Financial transaction" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">financial transactions</a> in a public space without the need for a cashier, human clerk or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_teller" title="Bank teller" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">bank teller</a>. ATMs are known by various other names including <i>ATM Machine</i>, <i>automatic banking machine</i>, <i>cash machine</i>, and various regional variants derived from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trademark" title="Trademark" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">trademarks</a> on ATM systems held by particular banks.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Invented by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM" title="IBM" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM</a>, the first ATM was introduced in December 1972 at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lloyds_Bank" title="Lloyds Bank" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Lloyds Bank</a> in the UK. On most modern ATMs, the customer is identified by inserting a plastic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATM_card" title="ATM card" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">ATM card</a> with a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_stripe" title="Magnetic stripe" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">magnetic stripe</a> or a plastic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_card" title="Smart card" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">smart card</a> with a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">chip</a>, that contains a unique card number and some security information such as an expiration date or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Card_Security_Code" title="Card Security Code" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">CVVC</a> (CVV). Authentication is provided by the customer entering a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_identification_number" title="Personal identification number" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">personal identification number</a> (PIN).</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">Using an ATM, customers can access their bank <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deposit_account" title="Deposit account" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">accounts</a> in order to make <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cash" title="Cash" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">cash</a> withdrawals, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_card" title="Credit card" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">credit card</a> cash advances, and check their account balances as well as purchase prepaid cellphone credit. If the currency being withdrawn from the ATM is different from that which the bank account is denominated in (e.g.: Withdrawing Japanese Yen from a bank account containing US Dollars), the money will be converted at a wholesale <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_rate" title="Exchange rate" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">exchange rate</a>. Thus, ATMs often provide the best possible exchange rate for foreign travelers and are heavily used for this purpose as well.</p></span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6575490034019035309.post-55475762975139967112011-08-23T19:05:00.000-07:002011-08-23T19:06:50.289-07:00IBM Research and inventions<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); "><h2 style="color: black; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.17em; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); width: auto; font-size: 19px; "><span class="mw-headline" id="Research_and_inventions">Research and inventions</span></h2><div class="thumb tleft" style="margin-bottom: 1.3em; width: auto; background-color: transparent; float: left; clear: left; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-right: 1.4em; margin-left: 0px; "><div class="thumbinner" style="min-width: 100px; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; background-color: rgb(249, 249, 249); font-size: 12px; text-align: center; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; width: 222px; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IBM_Anechoic_chamber.jpg" class="image" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/IBM_Anechoic_chamber.jpg/220px-IBM_Anechoic_chamber.jpg" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" style="border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); " /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align: left; border-top-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-bottom-style: none; border-left-style: none; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; line-height: 1.4em; padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; font-size: 11px; "><div class="magnify" style="float: right; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IBM_Anechoic_chamber.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; display: block; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><img src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" style="border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; display: block; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; " /></a></div>An <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anechoic_chamber" title="Anechoic chamber" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">anechoic chamber</a> inside <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Yamato_Facility" title="IBM Yamato Facility" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">IBM's Yamato research facility</a></div></div></div><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">In 1945, The Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory was founded at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Columbia University</a> in New York, New York. The renovated fraternity house on Manhattan's West Side was used as IBM's first laboratory devoted to pure science. The lab was the forerunner of IBM's Research Division, which today operates research facilities around the world.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">In 1966, IBM researcher Robert H. Dennard invented <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_Random_Access_Memory" title="Dynamic Random Access Memory" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Dynamic Random Access Memory</a> (DRAM) cells, one-transistor memory cells that store each single bit of information as an electrical charge in an electronic circuit. The technology permits major increases in memory density, and is widely adopted throughout the industry where it remains in widespread use today.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">IBM has been a leading proponent of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Source_Initiative" title="Open Source Initiative" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Open Source Initiative</a>, and began supporting <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux" title="Linux" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Linux</a> in 1998.The company invests billions of dollars in services and software based on Linux through the IBM <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_Technology_Center" title="Linux Technology Center" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Linux Technology Center</a>, which includes over 300 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_kernel" title="Linux kernel" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Linux kernel</a> developers. IBM has also released code under different <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source_license" title="Open source license" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">open source licenses</a>, such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-platform" title="Cross-platform" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">platform-independent</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_framework" title="Software framework" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">software framework</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eclipse_(software)" title="Eclipse (software)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Eclipse</a> (worth approximately US$40 million at the time of the donation), the three-sentence <a href="http://source.icu-project.org/repos/icu/icu/trunk/license.html" class="external text" rel="nofollow" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(51, 102, 187); background-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAoAAAAKCAYAAACNMs+9AAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAAFZJREFUeF59z4EJADEIQ1F36k7u5E7ZKXeUQPACJ3wK7UNokVxVk9kHnQH7bY9hbDyDhNXgjpRLqFlo4M2GgfyJHhjq8V4agfrgPQX3JtJQGbofmCHgA/nAKks+JAjFAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC); background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; padding-right: 13px; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; ">International Components for Unicode</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Components_for_Unicode" title="International Components for Unicode" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">ICU</a>) license, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Java</a>-based <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relational_database_management_system" title="Relational database management system" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">relational database management system</a>(RDBMS) <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_Derby" title="Apache Derby" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Apache Derby</a>. IBM's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source" title="Open source" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">open source</a> involvement has not been trouble-free, however (see <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCO_v._IBM" title="SCO v. IBM" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">SCO v. IBM</a></i>)</p></span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6575490034019035309.post-51991426642643698912011-08-23T19:04:00.000-07:002011-08-23T19:05:27.687-07:00Working at IBM<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); "><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">In 2010, IBM employed 105,000 workers in the U.S., a drop of 30,000 since 2003, and 75,000 people in India, up from 9,000 seven years previous.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">IBM's employee management practices can be traced back to its roots. In 1914, CEO Thomas J. Watson boosted company spirit by creating employee sports teams, hosting family outings, and furnishing a company band. In 1924, the Quarter Century Club, which recognizes employees with 25 years of service, was organized and the first issue of<i>Business Machines</i>, IBM's internal publication, was published. In 1925, the first meeting of the Hundred Percent Club, composed of IBM salesmen who meet their quotas, convened in Atlantic City, New Jersey.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">IBM was among the first corporations to provide group life insurance (1934), survivor benefits (1935) and paid vacations (1937). In 1932 IBM created an Education Department to oversee training for employees, which oversaw the completion of the IBM Schoolhouse at Endicott in 1933. In 1935, the employee magazine <i>Think</i> was created. Also that year, IBM held its first training class for women systems service professionals. In 1942, IBM launched a program to train and employ disabled people in Topeka, Kansas. The next year classes begin in New York City, and soon the company was asked to join the President's Committee for Employment of the Handicapped. In 1946, the company hired its first black salesman, 18 years before the Civil Rights Act of 1964. In 1947, IBM announces a Total and Permanent Disability Income Plan for employees. A vested rights pension is added to the IBM retirement plan.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">In 1952, Thomas J. Watson, Jr., published the company's first written equal opportunity policy letter, one year before the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Brown vs. Board of Education and 11 years before the Civil Rights Act of 1964. In 1961, IBM's nondiscrimination policy was expanded to include sex, national origin, and age. The following year, IBM hosted its first Invention Award Dinner honoring 34 outstanding IBM inventors; and in 1963, the company named the first eight IBM Fellows in a new Fellowship Program that recognizes senior IBM scientists, engineers and other professionals for outstanding technical achievements.</p><div class="thumb tright" style="margin-bottom: 1.3em; width: auto; background-color: transparent; clear: right; float: right; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-left: 1.4em; "><div class="thumbinner" style="min-width: 100px; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; background-color: rgb(249, 249, 249); font-size: 12px; text-align: center; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; width: 252px; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IBMtricycleJohannesburg1965.jpg" class="image" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "><img alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/IBMtricycleJohannesburg1965.jpg/250px-IBMtricycleJohannesburg1965.jpg" width="250" height="246" class="thumbimage" style="border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); " /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align: left; border-top-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-bottom-style: none; border-left-style: none; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; line-height: 1.4em; padding-top: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; font-size: 11px; "><div class="magnify" style="float: right; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IBMtricycleJohannesburg1965.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; display: block; border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; "><img src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" style="border-top-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-width: initial; border-color: initial; vertical-align: middle; display: block; border-width: initial !important; border-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-attachment: initial !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; " /></a></div>An IBM delivery tricycle in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannesburg,_South_Africa" title="Johannesburg, South Africa" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Johannesburg, South Africa</a> in 1965</div></div></div><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">On September 21, 1953, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Watson,_Jr." title="Thomas Watson, Jr." style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Thomas Watson, Jr.</a>, the company's president at the time, sent out a controversial letter to all IBM employees stating that IBM needed to hire the best people, regardless of their race, ethnic origin, or gender. He also publicized the policy so that in his negotiations to build new manufacturing plants with the governors of two states in the U.S. South, he could be clear that IBM would not build "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">separate-but-equal</a>" workplaces.In 1984, IBM added sexual orientation to its nondiscrimination policy. The company stated that this would give IBM a competitive advantage because IBM would then be able to hire talented people its competitors would turn down.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">IBM was the only technology company ranked in <i>Working Mother</i> magazine's Top 10 for 2004, and one of two technology companies in 2005.On October 10, 2005, IBM became the first major company in the world to commit formally to not using <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_testing" title="Genetic testing" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">genetic information</a> in employment decisions. The announcement was made shortly after IBM began working with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Geographic_Society" title="National Geographic Society" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">National Geographic Society</a> on its <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genographic_Project" title="Genographic Project" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Genographic Project</a>.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">IBM provides same-sex partners of its employees with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_insurance" title="Health insurance" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">health benefits</a> and provides an anti-discrimination clause. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Rights_Campaign" title="Human Rights Campaign" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Human Rights Campaign</a> has consistently rated IBM 100% on its index of gay-friendliness since 2003 (in 2002, the year it began compiling its report on major companies, IBM scored 86%).In 2007 and again in 2010, IBM UK was ranked first in Stonewall's annual Workplace Equality Index for UK employers.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The company has traditionally resisted labor union organizing,although unions represent some IBM workers outside the United States. In 2009, the<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unite_the_Union" title="Unite the Union" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Unite</a> union stated that several hundred employees joined following the announcement in the UK of pension cuts that left many employees facing a shortfall in projected pensions.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">A dark (or gray) suit, white shirt, and a "sincere" tie was the public uniform for IBM employees for most of the 20th century. During IBM's management transformation in the 1990s, CEO <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_V._Gerstner,_Jr." title="Louis V. Gerstner, Jr." style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Louis V. Gerstner, Jr.</a> relaxed these codes, normalizing the dress and behavior of IBM employees to resemble their counterparts in other large technology companies. Since then IBM's dress code is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_casual" title="Business casual" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">business casual</a> although employees often wear formal clothes during client meetings.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">On 16 June 2011, the company announced a grants programs, called IBM100, to fund its employees participation in volunteer projects - the year long initiative is part of the company's centenary celebrations.</p></span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6575490034019035309.post-30103298096903849142011-08-23T19:01:00.000-07:002011-08-23T19:03:25.681-07:00International Business Machines (IBM)<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); "><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; "><b>International Business Machines</b> (<b>IBM</b>) (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Stock_Exchange" title="New York Stock Exchange" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">NYSE</a>: <a href="http://www.nyse.com/about/listed/quickquote.html?ticker=ibm" class="external text" rel="nofollow" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(51, 102, 187); background-image: url(data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAAoAAAAKCAYAAACNMs+9AAAAGXRFWHRTb2Z0d2FyZQBBZG9iZSBJbWFnZVJlYWR5ccllPAAAAFZJREFUeF59z4EJADEIQ1F36k7u5E7ZKXeUQPACJ3wK7UNokVxVk9kHnQH7bY9hbDyDhNXgjpRLqFlo4M2GgfyJHhjq8V4agfrgPQX3JtJQGbofmCHgA/nAKks+JAjFAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC); background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; padding-right: 13px; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; ">IBM</a>) is a multinational <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology" title="Technology" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">technology</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consulting" title="Consulting" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">consulting</a> firm headquartered in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armonk,_New_York" title="Armonk, New York" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Armonk, New York</a>. IBM manufactures and sells computer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer_hardware" title="Personal computer hardware" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">hardware</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_software" title="Computer software" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">software</a>, and it offers <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">infrastructure</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_hosting_service" title="Internet hosting service" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">hosting</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consultant" title="Consultant" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">consulting services</a> in areas ranging from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">mainframe computers</a> to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">nanotechnology</a>.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The company was founded in 1911 as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computing_Tabulating_Recording_Corporation" title="Computing Tabulating Recording Corporation" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Computing Tabulating Recording Corporation</a> through a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merger" title="Merger" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">merger</a> of four companies: the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabulating_Machine_Company" title="Tabulating Machine Company" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Tabulating Machine Company</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_clock" title="Time clock" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">International Time Recording Company</a>, the Computing Scale Corporation, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundy_Manufacturing_Company" title="Bundy Manufacturing Company" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Bundy Manufacturing Company</a>. CTR adopted the name International Business Machines in 1924, using a name previously designated to CTR's subsidiary in Canada and later South America. Its distinctive culture and product branding has given it the nickname <i>Big Blue</i>.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">In 2011, <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortune_(magazine)" title="Fortune (magazine)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Fortune</a></i> ranked IBM the 18th largest firm in the U.S., as well as the 7th most profitable. Globally, the company was ranked the 31st largest firm by <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes" title="Forbes" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Forbes</a></i> for 2011.Other rankings for 2011 include #1 company for leaders (<i>Fortune</i>), #2 best global brand (<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interbrand" title="Interbrand" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Interbrand</a></i>), #1 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_company" title="Green company" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">green company</a> worldwide (<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newsweek" title="Newsweek" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Newsweek</a></i>), #12 most admired company (<i>Fortune</i>), and #18 most innovative company (<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_Company_(magazine)" title="Fast Company (magazine)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Fast Company</a></i>). IBM employs more than 425,000 employees (sometimes referred to as "IBMers") in over 200 countries, with occupations including scientists, engineers, consultants, and sales professionals.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">IBM holds more patents than any other U.S.-based technology company and has nine research laboratories worldwide. Its employees have garnered five<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Nobel Prizes</a>, four <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_Award" title="Turing Award" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Turing Awards</a>, nine <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Medal_of_Technology" title="National Medal of Technology" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">National Medals of Technology</a>, and five <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science" title="National Medal of Science" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">National Medals of Science</a>. Famous inventions by IBM include the<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_teller_machine" title="Automated teller machine" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">automated teller machine (ATM)</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floppy_disk" title="Floppy disk" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">floppy disk</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk_drive" title="Hard disk drive" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">hard disk drive</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_stripe_card" title="Magnetic stripe card" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">magnetic stripe card</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relational_model" title="Relational model" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">relational database</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Product_Code" title="Universal Product Code" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Universal Product Code (UPC)</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swap_(finance)" title="Swap (finance)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">financial swap</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabre_(computer_system)" title="Sabre (computer system)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">SABRE airline reservation system</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DRAM" title="DRAM" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">DRAM</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watson_(computer)" title="Watson (computer)" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Watson artificial intelligence</a>.</p><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em; ">The company has undergone several organizational changes since its inception, acquiring companies like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPSS" title="SPSS" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">SPSS</a> (2009) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PwC" title="PwC" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">PwC</a> consulting (2002),<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_out" title="Spin out" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">spinning off</a> companies like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexmark" title="Lexmark" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Lexmark</a> (1991), and selling off product lines like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ThinkPad" title="ThinkPad" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">ThinkPad</a> to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenovo" title="Lenovo" style="text-decoration: none; color: rgb(6, 69, 173); background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; ">Lenovo</a> (2005).</p></span>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1